Motivation Concepts Chapter SIX

What Is Motivation? Direction Persistence Intensity

Key Elements 1.Intensity: How hard a person tries 2.Direction: Toward beneficial goal 3.Persistence: How long a person tries Key Elements 1.Intensity: How hard a person tries 2.Direction: Toward beneficial goal 3.Persistence: How long a person tries Motivation The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal What Is Motivation?

Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow) Hierarchy of Needs Theory There is a hierarchy of five needs: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization; as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. Self-Actualization The drive to become what one is capable of becoming Self-Actualization The drive to become what one is capable of becoming

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs E X H I B I T 6–1 Lower-Order Needs Needs that are satisfied externally; physiological and safety needs Higher-Order Needs Needs that are satisfied internally; social, esteem, and self-actualization needs Self Esteem Social Safety Physiological

Assumptions of Maslow’s Hierarchy Movement Up the Pyramid Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied. Maslow Application A homeless person will not be motivated to meditate! Maslow Application A homeless person will not be motivated to meditate! Individuals therefore must move up the hierarchy in order.

Theory X Managers See Workers as… Theory X Managers See Workers as… Disliking Work Avoiding Responsibility Having Little Ambition Theory Y Managers See Workers as… Theory Y Managers See Workers as… Enjoying Work Accepting Responsibility Self-Directed

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Bottom Line: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites of the same thing! Separate Constructs –Hygiene Factors — Extrinsic and Related to Dissatisfaction –Motivation Factors — Intrinsic and Related to Satisfaction Hygiene Factors Salary Work Conditions Company Policies Hygiene Factors Salary Work Conditions Company Policies Motivators Achievement Responsibility Growth Motivators Achievement Responsibility Growth

Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job dissatisfaction Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job satisfaction E X H I B I T 6–2 Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees? by Frederick Herzberg, September–October Copyright © 1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College: All rights reserved.

Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction E X H I B I T 6–3

David McClelland’s Theory of Needs Need for Achievement The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed Need for Affiliation The desire for friendly and close personal relationships Need for Power The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise Bottom Line Individuals have different levels of needs in each of these areas, and those levels will drive their behavior. Bottom Line Individuals have different levels of needs in each of these areas, and those levels will drive their behavior.

Matching High Achievers and Jobs E X H I B I T 6–4

Cognitive Evaluation Theory Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation The theory may be relevant only to jobs that are neither extremely dull nor extremely interesting. Hint: For this theory, think about how fun it is to read in the summer, but once reading is assigned to you for a grade, you don’t want to do it!

E X H I B I T 6–5 What Would Herzberg Say? What Would Maslow Say?

Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke) Basic Premise: That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance. But, the relationship between goals and performance will depend on: Goal commitment – “I want to do it & I can do it” Task characteristics (simple, well-learned) National culture

Goal Setting in Action: MBO Programs Management By Objectives Programs Company wide goals and objectives Goals aligned at all levels Based on Goal Setting Theory Management By Objectives Programs Company wide goals and objectives Goals aligned at all levels Based on Goal Setting Theory

What Is MBO? Key Elements 1.Goal specificity 2.Participative decision making 3.An explicit time period 4.Performance feedback Key Elements 1.Goal specificity 2.Participative decision making 3.An explicit time period 4.Performance feedback Management by Objectives (MBO) A program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress

Cascading of Objectives E X H I B I T 6–1

Linking MBO and Goal-Setting Theory MBO Goal-Setting Theory Goal SpecificityYesYes Goal DifficultyYesYes FeedbackYesYes ParticipationYesNo (qualified)

Why MBOs Fail  Unrealistic expectations about MBO results  Lack of commitment by top management  Failure to allocate reward properly  Cultural incompatibilities

Self-Efficacy Self-esteem, which is: Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking themselves Self-esteem, which is: Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking themselves An individual’s feeling that s/he can complete a task (e.g. “I know I can!”) Enhances probability that goals will be achieved An individual’s feeling that s/he can complete a task (e.g. “I know I can!”) Enhances probability that goals will be achieved Not to be confused with:

Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting

Four Ways of Increasing Self-efficacy (Bandura) 1.Enactive Mastery 2.Vicarious Modeling 3.Verbal Persuasion 4.Arousal Note: Basic Premise/Mechanism of Pygmalion and Galatea Effects

Reinforcement Theory Assumptions: Behavior is environmentally caused. Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences. Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated. Assumptions: Behavior is environmentally caused. Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences. Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated. Argues that behavior is a function of its consequences

Equity Theory Referent Comparisons: Self-inside Self-outside Other-inside Other-outside Referent Comparisons: Self-inside Self-outside Other-inside Other-outside Equity Theory Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities

Equity Theory (cont’d) E X H I B I T 6–8

Equity Theory (cont’d) Choices for dealing with inequity: 1.Change inputs (slack off) 2.Change outcomes (increase output) 3.Distort/change perceptions of self 4.Distort/change perceptions of others 5.Choose a different referent person 6.Leave the field (quit the job) Choices for dealing with inequity: 1.Change inputs (slack off) 2.Change outcomes (increase output) 3.Distort/change perceptions of self 4.Distort/change perceptions of others 5.Choose a different referent person 6.Leave the field (quit the job)

Equity Theory (cont’d) Propositions relating to inequitable pay: 1.Overrewarded hourly employees produce more than equitably rewarded employees. 2.Overrewarded piece-work employees produce less, but do higher quality piece work. 3.Underrewarded hourly employees produce lower quality work. 4.Underrewarded employees produce larger quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees. Propositions relating to inequitable pay: 1.Overrewarded hourly employees produce more than equitably rewarded employees. 2.Overrewarded piece-work employees produce less, but do higher quality piece work. 3.Underrewarded hourly employees produce lower quality work. 4.Underrewarded employees produce larger quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees.

Justice and Equity Theory

Distributive Justice Perceived fairness of the outcome (the final distribution) “Who got what?” Procedural Justice Perceived fairness of the process used to determine the outcome (the final distribution) “How was who gets what decided?” Interactional Justice The degree to which one is treated with dignity and respect. “Was I treated well?” Three Types of Justice

Ethical Values and Behaviors of Leaders Bottom Line All three links between the boxes must be intact or motivation will not occur. Thus, Individuals must feel that if they try, they can perform and If they perform, they will be rewarded and When they are rewarded, the reward will be something they care about. Expectancy Theory

Elizabeth’s boss starts out the day each morning saying, “Bet you wish you didn’t have to be here, huh?” Knowing this, which theory gives us insight as to why Elizabeth may not be motivated at work? Chapter Check-up: Motivation

Elizabeth’s boss my well be a Theory X manager, as she/he assumes employees don’t like work and/or want to be there. Chapter Check-up: Motivation

If you study really hard and only get a B on an exam, but your classmate barely studies at all and gets an A, what theory will help explain why you feel less motivated to go to class? Chapter Check-up: Motivation

What theory would say that this man, who knows he works hard and is performing well, will be motivated by a gym membership for being a high performer? Chapter Check-up: Motivation

Expectancy Theory Would a gym membership be considered a motivator or hygiene factor, according to Herzberg? Discuss with a classmate. Expectancy Theory Would a gym membership be considered a motivator or hygiene factor, according to Herzberg? Discuss with a classmate. Chapter Check-up: Motivation

Putting It All Together Putting It All Together