Developing management theory One example - Motivation ARBE121 – MANAGEMENT THEORY  Motivation “…internal processes and external forces that direct behaviour.” John Naylor, Management, FT Prentice Hall  The importance of motivation Performance = f(competence, motivation) Competence – skills, knowledge, physical environment etc Motivation – the will/pressure to apply competence

Motivation – Naylor’s overview model ARBE121 – MANAGEMENT THEORY Content Theory Process Theory Reinforcement Theory Needs Behaviour Rewards Feedback  Needs – what motivates people  Behaviour – how they act to meet needs  Rewards – benefits linked to desired behaviour

Motivation – the “rational-economic” view ARBE121 – MANAGEMENT THEORY  Motivation Human beings are driven by economic needs/aspirations  The role of the manager Assure competence through training, efficient workplace… Setting pay/bonuses etc to meet production targets in line with value of work  Dominant view Of “scientific management” school Held sway for 1 st quarter 20 th C

The Hawthorne experiments – a watershed ARBE121 – MANAGEMENT THEORY  A scientific management experiment – mid 1920’s Adjusting lighting levels to assess impact on production  Confusing results Production rates continued to improve independently of lighting levels “Control” groups changed in line with experimental groups  Mayo & Roethlisberger Harvard Business School became involved in 1928 Continued programme of experiments to 1933

The Hawthorne experiments – a watershed ARBE121 – MANAGEMENT THEORY  The continuing experiments Working groups were monitored while physical conditions and working patterns were changed Workers were anonymously interviewed about attitudes to work, other workers and managers  The conclusions Relationships between members of work teams and between teams and managers are strong influences on production Nearly 80 years on the debate about true meaning of results remains

Motivation – Content theories ARBE121 – MANAGEMENT THEORY  Hierarchy of needs Maslow 1940’s – proposed a five level pyramid Physiological, security, social, esteem, self-actualisation As each level is satisfied it ceases to be a motivator  Current views Though modified in 1970’s (Alderfer) hierarchical models have tended to be superseded in theoretical approaches However, they remain attractive to practitioners Important in recognising extrinsic and intrinsic nature of rewards

Motivation – Content theories ARBE121 – MANAGEMENT THEORY  Two factor theory Herzberg 1950’s – what causes satisfaction is different to what causes dissatisfaction  Hygiene factors Influence dissatisfaction – pay, job security, working conditions, relationships at work, supervision etc… Should be set at “adequate” levels  Motivators Influence satisfaction – achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, personal growth etc… Should be enhanced – e.g. by job enrichment

Motivation – Content theories ARBE121 – MANAGEMENT THEORY  Nature versus nurture Is an individual’s innate motivation learned or inherited? Mclelland’s “Acquired Needs” theory supports the former view at least for senior managers More recent identical twin studies seem to suggest that some aspects may be genetic!

Motivation – A broad view ARBE121 – MANAGEMENT THEORY  Level of motivation at any point is a complex phenomenon Individual’s intrinsic motivation/reward character Individual’s learned behaviours Relationships within workforce/teams Relationships with management Perceived value of extrinsic rewards – financial and non- financial Etc, etc…

Motivation – A broad view ARBE121 – MANAGEMENT THEORY  Motivation cannot be considered in isolation Theory and practice of leadership Theory and practice of organisational design Theory and practice of job design etc, etc…  Motivation (and other management roles) must be treated in a situational or contingent fashion The strategy adopted should vary according to specific circumstances See list of typical situational variables in previous lecture

Further reading ARBE121 – MANAGEMENT THEORY General management texts cover the development of motivation theory and the related issues of leadership, team working, organisations etc… See e.g. Management, John Naylor Chapters 2, and For a construction specific view of these issues look at e.g.: The practice of construction management, Barry Fryer Chapters 1, 3-4 and 6-7 and Management for the construction industry, Stephen Lavender Chapters 2, 7-8 and