Semiconductor Revolution in the 20th Century Zhores Alferov Semiconductor Revolution in the 20th Century St Petersburg Academic University — Nanotechnology Research and Education Centre RAS

Introduction Semiconductor research in 1930th Transistor discovery Discovery of laser–maser principle and birth of quantum optoelectronics Invention and development of the silicon chips Heterostructure research “God-made” and “Man-made” crystals Problems and future trends

Polytechnical Institute Ioffe seminar at the Polytechnical Institute. 1916

Yakov Frenkel

One of the last Ioffe photo. September 1960

Laboratory demo model of the first bipolar transistor Schematic plot of the first point-contact transistor

The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956 "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect" William Bradford Shockley 1910–1989 John Bardeen 1908–1991 Walter Houser Brattain 1902–1987

W. Shockley and A. Ioffe. Prague. 1960.

The Nobel Prize in Physics 1964 "for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle" Charles Hard Townes b. 1915 Nicolay Basov 1922–2001 Aleksandr Prokhorov 1916–2002 13

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Lasers and LEDs on p–n junctions January 1962: observations of superlumenscences in GaAs p-n junctions (Ioffe Institute, USSR). Sept.-Dec. 1962: laser action in GaAs and GaAsP p-n junctions (General Electric , IBM (USA); Lebedev Institute (USSR). Condition of optical gain: EnF – EpF > Eg 16

The Nobel Prize in Physics 2000 "for basic work on information and communication technology" “for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed- and opto-electronics” “for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit” Zhores I. Alferov b. 1930 Herbert Kroemer b. 1928 Jack S. Kilby 1923–2005 17

First integrated circuit/notebook

Patent of the first integrated circuit by R. Noyce

Factory sales of Electronics and IC S.M. Sze, J. Appl. Phys. Vol. 22 (1983) (a) Factory sales of Electronics in the United States over the past 50 years and projected to 1990. (b) Integrated circuit Market in the United States. 22

Changing composition of work force in the United States S.M. Sze, J. Appl. Phys. Vol. 22 (1983) 23

Penetration of technology into the industrial output S.M. Sze, J. Appl. Phys. Vol. 22 (1983) Penetration of technology into the industrial output versus year for four periods of change in the United States electronics industry. 24

Moore's law I: device downsizing 25 H. Iwai, H. Wang, Phys. World Vol. 18, 09 2005

Moore's law II: chip density 26 H. Iwai, H. Wang, Phys. World Vol. 18, 09 2005

Increase in the power density of VLSI chips 27 B. Jalali et. all., OPN, June 2009

Fundamental physical phenomena in classical heterostructures One-side Injection Propozal — 1948 (W. Shokley) Experiment — 1965 (Zh. Alferov et al.) (b) Superinjection Theory — 1966 (Zh. Alferov et al.) Experiment — 1968 (Zh. Alferov et al.) (c) Diffusion in built-in quasielectric field Theory — 1956 (H. Kroemer) Experiment — 1967 (Zh. Alferov et al.)

Fundamental physical phenomena in classical heterostructures Electron and optical confinement Propozal — 1963 (Zh. Alferov et al.) Experiment — 1968 (Zh. Alferov et al.) (e) Superlattices and quantum wells Theory — 1962 (L.V. Keldysh) First experiment —1970 (L. Esaki et al.) Resonant tunnelling — 1963 (L.V. Iogansen) In Quantum Wells — 1974 (L. Esaki et al.)

Heterojunctions — a new kind of semiconductor materials: Long journey from infinite interface recombination to ideal heterojunction Lattice matched heterojunctions Ge–GaAs–1959 (R. L. Anderson) AlGaAs–1967 (Zh. Alferov et al., J. M. Woodall & H. S. Rupprecht) Quaternary HS (InGaAsP & AlGaAsSb) Proposal–1970 (Zh. Alferov et al.) First experiment–1972 (Antipas et al.)

Energy gaps vs lattice constants for semiconductors IV elements, III–V and II(IV)–VI compounds and magnetic materials in parentheses. Lines connecting the semiconductors, red for III–V, and blue for others, indicate quantum heterostructures, that have been investigated. Nitrides have not been yet included.

Schematic representation of the DHS injection laser in the first CW-operation at room temperature

Heterostructure solar cells Space station “Mir” equipped with heterostructure solar cells

Heterostructure microelectronics Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor Suggestion—1948 (W.Shockley) Theory—1957 (H.Kroemer) Experiment—1972 (Zh.Alferov et al.) AlGaAs HBT HEMT—1980 (T.Mimura et al.) NAlGaAs-n GaAs Heterojunction Speed-power performances

Heterostructure Tree (by I. Hayashi, 1985)

Liquid Phase Epitaxy of III–V compounds InAsGaP thin layer in InGaP/InGaAsP/InGaP/GaAs (111 A) structure with quantum well grown by LPE. TEM image of the structure.

Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) III–V compounds Riber 32P MESFET, HEMT QCL, RTD, Esaki-Tsu SL PD, LED, LD .... Schematic view of MBE machine MBE — high purity of materials, in situ control, precision of structure growth in layer thickness and composition

MOCVD growth of III–V compounds Schematic view of MOCVD chamber Aixtron AIX2000 HT (up to 6 x 2” wafers) Production oriented growth machine for the fabrication of device structures Epiquip VP50-RP (up to 1 x 2” wafer) Flexible growth machine for laboratory studies Unique method of wafer rotation leads to high uniformity of structure in wafer and high reproducibility from wafer to wafer MOCVD — high purity of materials, large-scale device-oriented technology

Impact of dimensionality on density of states

Quantum cascade lasers Band diagram Layer sequence Emission spectrum at room temperature Light- and Volt-current characteristics

Quantum dot as superatom Semiconductor Quantum dot

Milestones of semiconductor lasers • Evolution and revolutionary changes • Reduction of dimensionality results in improvements

“Magic leather” energy consumption 43

Multijunction solar cells provide conversion of the solar spectrum with higher efficiency. Achievable efficiency of multijunction cells is > 50% 44 44

The experimental PV installation with output power of 1 kW based on concentrator III-V solar cells and Fresnel lens panels arranged on the sun-tracker (development of the Ioffe Institute). The efficiency >30% can be ensured by such a type of installations if they are equipped by tandem solar cells with efficiency >35%. 45

White light-emitting diodes: efficiency, controllability, reliability, life time Today: InGaN-QW/GaN/sapphire light-emitting chip + YAG Ce phosphor Outlook: Monolithic microcavity LED with InGN/GN MQW active region + simple design – phosphor loss + monolithic nature + absence of additional loss 46

Nanostructures for high power semiconductor lasers Laser efficiency > 75% Laser power > 10 W Laser array output power > 100 W Matrix output power > 5 kW 47

Global nanotechnology market forecast: More than 1 trillion USD annually in the nearest 8–10 years 48

Summary 1. Heterostructures — a new kind of semiconductor materials: expensive, complicated chemically & technologically but most efficient 2. Modern optoelectronics is based on heterostructure applications DHS laser — key device of the modern optoelectronics HS PD — the most efficient & high speed photo diode OEIC — only solve problem of high information density of optical communication system 3. Future high speed microelectronics will mostly use heterostructures 4. High temperature, high speed power electronics — a new broad field of heterostructure applications 5. Heterostructures in solar energy conversion: the most expensive photocells and the cheapest solar electricity producer 6. In the 21st century heterostructures in electronics will reserve only 1% for homojunctions 49