Learning Learning refers to relatively permanent changes in behavior resulting from practice or experienceLearning refers to relatively permanent changes in behavior resulting from practice or experience Innate behaviors are inborn, emerge during certain periods, and are not the result of learningInnate behaviors are inborn, emerge during certain periods, and are not the result of learning

Classical Conditioning Certain stimuli can elicit a reflexive response –Air puff >> eye-blink –Smelling food >> can produce salivation The reflexive stimulus (UCS) and response (UCR) are unconditioned The neutral stimulus is referred to as the conditioned stimulus (CS) In classical conditioning, the CS is repeatedly paired with the reflexive stimulus (UCS) Eventually the CS will produce a response (CR) similar to that produced by the UCS

Pavlov’s Experiment

Analysis of Pavlov’s Study

Conditioning of Emotional Responses John Watson documented that conditioning of emotional responses in the Little Albert study –CS: a white rat –UCS: a loud banging sound –UCR: fear/startle response –Eventually Albert exhibited fear to the white rat Other instances of learning –Positive: conditioning of attraction in advertising Brand name (CS) + attractive model (UCS) => liking (UCR) –Negative: aversion Flavor (CS) + illness (UCS) => flavor aversion (UCR)

Extinction Pairings of the CS and UCS lead to conditioning whereas presentation of the CS only leads to loss of the conditioned response Extinction refers to loss of response to a CS presented without the UCS –Extinction is not forgetting Extinction is useful in clinical situations –Extinction of a phobia can be treated by exposure to the CS only

Operant/Skinnerian Conditioning Organisms make responses that have consequences –Punishment –Reinforcement –The response can be associated with cues in the environment We put coins in a machine to obtain food But we refrain when an Out of Order sign is placed on the machine

Key Aspects of Operant Conditioning In operant conditioning, the stimulus is a cue, it does not elicit the response Operant responses are voluntary In operant conditioning, the response elicits a reinforcing stimulus

Key Terms of Operant Conditioning Reinforcement is any procedure that increases the response Punishment is any procedure that decreases the response Types of reinforcers: –Primary: e.g. food or water –Secondary: money or power

Reinforcement/Punishment

Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous: reinforcement occurs after every responseContinuous: reinforcement occurs after every response –Produces rapid acquisition and is subject to rapid extinction Partial: reinforcement occurs after some, but not all, responsesPartial: reinforcement occurs after some, but not all, responses –Responding on a partial reinforcement schedule is more resistant to extinction

Partial Reinforcement Schedules Ratio: every nth response is reinforced –Fixed: every nth response –Variable: on average, every nth response Interval: first response after some interval results in reinforcement –Fixed: interval is x in length (e.g. 1 min) –Variable: the average interval is x

Shaping Shaping – rewarding successive approximations towards the final goalShaping – rewarding successive approximations towards the final goal –Used often in phobias… –E.G. fear of snakes…

Punishment Positive Punishment – presenting a stimulus that leads to a lowered likelihood for a response to occur in the futurePositive Punishment – presenting a stimulus that leads to a lowered likelihood for a response to occur in the future Negative Punishment – removing a stimulus that leads to a lowered likelihood for a response to occur in the futureNegative Punishment – removing a stimulus that leads to a lowered likelihood for a response to occur in the future

Reinforcement/Punishment

Biofeedback Feedback allows for control of responses –Most operant responses are voluntary motor system responses –The autonomic nervous system (ANS) does not provide sufficient sensory feedback to the brain to allow for conscious control Biofeedback uses electronic devices to provide feedback and control of ANS function (e.g. skin temperature)

Biofeedback

Cognitive-Social Theory Cognitive-social theory: uses learning principles in combination with an emphasis on thought processesCognitive-social theory: uses learning principles in combination with an emphasis on thought processes Observational learning refers to the notion that humans can learn through observation of modelsObservational learning refers to the notion that humans can learn through observation of models –Requires attention to the model –Involves cognitive abilities to organize and remember the modeled behavior –Requires practice of the modeled behavior –Person must decide to use the modeled behavior

Neuroscience of Learning Learning involves changes in the brain –Biochemical changes noted during learning include changes in the ability of neurons to release transmitters across the synaptic cleft –Anatomical changes during learning include circuits within particular brain regions: E.g. the cerebellum plays a role in certain forms of classical conditioning (involving an eye blinking)

Summary of Conditioning