Handling Feeds (Processing, Mixing, Storage) 10-8-12

FEED PROCESSING Feed cost is normally the single largest expense associated with any animal production operation > 50% Often up to 80%

Why Process Feeds? Alter physical form Alter particle size Prevent spoilage Isolate particular portion of plant Improve palatability Inactivate toxins or antinutritional factors Ease of handling Increase digestibility

How does processing increase digestibility? Improve intake How does this affect digestibility? How does this affect nutrient uptake? Increase surface area of particles More surface area for chemical and enzymatic reactions Alters molecular structure Denaturing, cooking starch, etc…

How are feeds processed?

Grain Processing Cold or Hot Processing Dry or Wet Processing Cold Hot Cracking, grinding, soaking, reconstitution, high moisture grain, acid preservation Hot Steam rolling or flaking, pelleting, extrusion, popping, micronizing, roasting Dry or Wet Processing

Grinding/Cracking – Cold Processing Various scales of grinding Hammer mill or Roller Mill Most common method Inexpensive Simple

Cracking & Grinding - Roller Mills Act on grain by compressing it between two corrugated rolls that can be screwed together to produce smaller and smaller particles. Figure 11.3 Top. One type of a roller mill used for processing grain. Right. The large corrugated rolls that physically crush the grain as shown. Courtesy of Automatic Equipment Mfg. Co. Pender, NB.

Roller Mills Products can range in size cracked grain to a fine powder = corn, wheat, or milo Flattened to powder = course grains (barley, oats) The hulls won’t grind into powder well with roller mills Roller mills produce a less dusty feed than a hammer mill. If the grain is not ground too finely, the physical texture is very acceptable to most species. Swine diets - very finely ground Roller mills are not used with roughage.

Hammer Mills Process feed using rotating metal bars (hammers) that blow the ground product through a metal screen. Particle size is controlled by changing the screen size. Figure 11.5 One example of a portable grinder (hammer mill) and mixer available for on-the-farm use. Courtesy of Richard Kellems.

Grinding - Summary Grinding improves nutrient utilization by disrupting the outer protective coating and increasing the accessibility of the digestive secretion to the materials inside. Coursely ground grains are preferred for ruminants Not palatable when fine, or dusty Fine ground common for poultry and swine Grinding is comparable to other processing methods when intake of grain is low.

Soaking Grain – Cold/Hot Method Grain soaked for 12 to 24 hours in water Soaking, (may also be heat), softens the grain, which swells, making a palatable product that should be rolled before use in finishing rations. Research does not show any marked improvement in feed efficiency as compared to other processing. Space requirements, handling problems and potential souring discourage large-scale use.

Reconstitution – Cold Method Reconstitution is somewhat similar to soaking. Water is added to mature, dry grain to raise the moisture content to 25% to 30%. Stored in an oxygen-limiting silo for 14 to 21 days. Improved gain and feed conversion by beef cattle fed high-concentrate rations when whole grain used (milo and corn) Does not work well if grain is ground prior to reconstitution. Milo should be rolled after. Some fermentation takes place during holding. Disadvantage is in regard to capacity and holding

High-Moisture Grain High-moisture grain refers to grain harvested at a high moisture content ( 20 to 35%) & stored in a silo or under plastic to preserve the grain. Can be further processed before or after ensiling. May be useful when weather doesn’t allow for drying in the field High-moisture grain produces good feedlot results, with feed conversion particularly improved over dry grain. Disadvantages mold if weather is not cold, mishandled, or improperly stored, not chemically treated. Storage costs may be high. More difficult to dispose of than dry grains

High-Moisture Grain – Acid Preservation 1 – 1.5% addition propionic acid, mixtures of acetic & propionic acid, or formic & propionic acid Prevent mold and spoilage Won’t affect animal performance if mixed correctly

Hot Processing Methods Methods for heat processing include: Common: Steam rolling and flaking; extruding, pelleting Uncommon: Popping, micronizing, and roasting. Some methods are time, equipment and cost prohibitive Micronizing, popping, roasting

Popping, Micronizing, Roasting Popped corn is produced by action of dry heat, causing a sudden expansion that ruptures the endosperm of the grain. Increases gut and rumen starch utilization but results in a low-density feed. Popped feed usually is rolled to reduce bulk. Micronizing is essentially the same as popping, but heat is provided by infrared energy.

Steam Rolling – Hot Process Steam rolling has been used since the 1940s, partly to kill weed seeds. Steam passes up through a chamber that holds the grain above a roller mill. Grains are subjected to 3- 5 minutes of steam BEFORE being rolled. Does NOT modify the starch but it DOES soften the seed. Less fines and larger flakes than dry/cold rolling – typically improve animal performance

Steam Flaking Grains Steam-flaking, used since the 1960s Grains subjected to high-moisture steam for 15 - 30 minutes. Rolled Feeding value can improve by 12% to 15%. The thinner the grain is flaked, the lighter the bushel weight & faster the rate of in vitro starch digestion.

Steam Flaking Steam flaking allows more efficient rupture of starch granules, for a more desirable physical texture in the finished product. Starch becomes gelatinized – intermolecular bonds of starch break down (water causes swelling) which allows hydrogen binding sites to engage more water which dissolves the starch granules. Corn, barley & sorghum usually give a good response in terms of increased gain & feed efficiency.

Extrusion Extruded grains or other feeds are prepared by passing the feed through a machine with a spiral screw, forcing the feed through a tapered head. Moisture is added Heat is added Pressure is added Starch is gelatinized Puffs and changes texture due to loss of heat and moisture at the end of the process Dried but retains the porosity http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MU3PJb2Ngqs

HOT Pelleting Pellets, available commercially for over 50 years, come in different diameters, lengths & hardness. Figure 11.7 One type of pellet mill widely used for pelleting concentrates. A quick-change die is shown at the left. Roughages can be pelleted, but production is reduced & costs are appreciably higher.

Pelleting Pelleting is accomplished by grinding feed and forcing it through a thick, spinning die by rollers. Feedstuffs are usually steamed to some extent prior. Typically not enough to gelatinize the starch. Palatable High percentages of poultry, horse & swine feeds are pelleted. Not as palatable for ruminants on high – grain diets. Will see reduction in feed intake. Works well for forages. Supplemental feeds such as protein concentrates are often pelleted, so that they can then be fed on the ground or in windy areas with much less loss.

Pelleting - Roughage Advantages Pelleting roughages puts them in free flowing form Must be ground prior to pelleting – expense Reduce space requirement by as much as 75% May increase intake of forages Reduces dustiness Increase efficiency for low-quality forages Disadvantages Cost of additional processing (more costly for roughage than for concentrate) Reduces the roughage value of hay

Examples of diet effects on VFA production Forage:Concentrate VFA, Molar% 60:40 40:60 20:80 Acetate 66.9 62.9 56.7 Propionate 21.1 24.9 30.9 Butyrate 12.0 12.2 12.4 Methane, Mcal/d 3.1 2.6 1.8 Physical form of forage Alfalfa hay Grind VFA, Molar% Long Coarse Fine Pelleted Acetate 62.5 56.8 47.5 18.2 Propionate 23.8 27.1 28.5 45.7 Butyrate 10.8 13.6 23.9 32.8

Poultry - Pellets Typically fed crumbles rather than pellets More water consumption on pellets (10 – 20%) More cannibalism Crumbles are rolled pellets Item Mash Crumble Re-ground Crumble Corn soy diet Avg. weight (g) 407 471 461 Feed/Gain 2.06 1.90 1.96

ROUGHAGE PROCESSING Pelleting Pelleting usually gives greatest relative increase in performance for low-quality roughages. Increased density, rapid passage through the GI tract, and reduced digestibility is normal. Net nutrient uptake is increased because of the increased consumption. Pelleted, high-quality roughages produce performance in young cattle or lambs almost comparable to that yielded by high-grain feeding.

ROUGHAGE PROCESSING Pelleting In ruminants, less cellulose is digested, relatively less acetic acid is produced, and relatively more digestion takes place in the intestines. Because pellets pass out of the rumen more rapidly. Feeding finely ground, pelleted rations for long periods of time may be detrimental to the rumen. Animals fed in this manner will develop hyperkeratosis of the rumen papillae, which reduces absorption and performance.

ROUGHAGE PROCESSING Baled Roughage Baling is still one of the most common methods of handling roughage, particularly where it is apt to be sold or transported some distance. Figure 11.9 Unloading large bales of hay. Baling has a considerable advantage over loose hay stacked in the field, or in other, less-dense forms. Large bales are becoming more common.

Baled Roughage Although handled mechanically for the most part, it still requires more hand labor than many other feedstuffs. Considerable waste may occur in feeding, depending on how it is fed, and level of feeding. Heavily fed animals such as dairy cows may be quite selective, so that coarse stems will not be consumed.

ROUGHAGE PROCESSING Chopped and Ground Roughage Chopping or grinding puts roughage in a physical form handled readily by mechanical equipment. Also tends to provide a more uniform product and usually reduces feed refusal & waste. Many feed trucks are now able to chop hay in the mixing chamber. Additional expense is incurred by grinding, and loss of dust may be appreciable from grinding with a hammer mill. To reduce dust loss, fat or molasses is sometimes sprayed on bales before they are ground.

Figure 11.10 An example of a tub grinder, a type that is very useful for grinding roughages coarsely. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HR9yFOnihdc&feature=related

Ground hays are, as a rule, quite dusty and may not be consumed readily. Adding moisture helps. Chopping produces a physical texture of a more desirable nature for ruminants or horses than does grinding. Chopped hay does not lend itself as well to incorporation into mixed feeds as does ground hay.

Figure 11.11 The effect of baling (left), grinding in a hammer mill (center), or grinding and pelleting (right) on the volume of alfalfa hay after processing. Each pile contains 5 lb of hay.

ROUGHAGE PROCESSING Dried, Dehydrated Roughages Alfalfa meal is produced in the U.S., mostly for export, and some is produced in Europe. Dehydrated alfalfa, Bermuda grass, and other forages are harvested at an early stage of growth when protein content is high and the fiber content relatively low. Also a high content of carotene and xanthophylls. Cost is relatively high, so it is used in limited amounts for poultry or swine as a source of carotene, vitamins, or unidentified growth factors.

ROUGHAGE PROCESSING Dried, Dehydrated Roughages Figure 11.12 One example of a commercial dryer used for drying and dehydrating feeds.

EFFECT OF PROCESSING ON NUTRITIVE VALUE - Heating dry a feedstuff to a point allowing storage without refrigeration, use of preservatives, or ensiling. Reduce microbial content (sterilization) Alter the chemistry (denature proteins, gelatinize starch, inactivate toxins) With regard to proteins, excessive heating in the presence of sugars may result in browning. As a consequence of the Maillard reaction, lysine reacts with the sugars and becomes partially unavailable to the animal.

NUTRITIVE VALUE - Heating Overheating fish or animal proteins makes them less efficient. Heating of cereal grains to a moderate degree for short periods of time may result in a slight improvement in protein utilization for ruminants. But little if any improvement for nonruminants. Heating legume seeds results in an improvement in protein quality, degrading anti-quality factors. Soybeans Increase the metabolizable energy value Reduces solubility of soy protein for less degradation of protein in the rumen.

Nutritive Value - Heating In cereal grains, heat, especially with moisture, results in partial gelatinization of the starch. More efficient utilization of grains, particularly if mechanical rupture of starch granules takes place, especially for ruminants on high-grain diets. Any treatment that increases exposure to air, heat or light normally results in some deterioration of most of the vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamins and thiamin, pantothenic acid, folic acid, and biotin are particularly susceptible to destruction by heat and light.

NUTRITIVE VALUE - Grinding and Pelleting Grinding results in a substantial reduction in particle size and exposure of much more surface area to the action of chemicals, as well as to the digestive juices. Storage of ground grains or other feedstuffs results in destruction of readily oxidized nutrients. Unsaturated fats, especially in the presence of trace minerals such as iron and manganese. Digestibility of nutrients in pelleted feeds is usually increased when retention time in the digestive tract is the same.

HIGH-MOISTURE GRAIN Harvesting grains earlier may avoid losses to bad weather or, in the case of sorghum grains, large amounts of damage from birds. Early-harvested corn or sorghum may be expected to have a moisture content of 25% to 30%. It is then necessary to dry, ensile, or treat them with chemicals if the grains are to be stored. Early harvested grain requires less energy to grind or roll, and are quite palatable to livestock. Protein & starch fractions are more soluble and more completely digested, or digested at a more rapid rate by ruminants.

Economics of Processing Relatively higher energy costs have increased interest in minimizing feed processing costs or obtaining maximum return per unit of cost for processing or preservation. Costs in megacalories of fossil fuel (oil, coal, gas) per ton of processed feed have been estimated and are shown at right.