ALBERT BANDURA

“What people think, believe, and feel affects how they behave. The natural and extrinsic effects of their actions, in turn, partly determine their thought patterns and affective reactions.” (Bandura)

Biography Born December 4, 1925 in Mundare, Alberta, Canada Youngest of 6 children 1949 – degree in psychology from University of British Columbia 1952 – Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology from University of Iowa 1953 – began teaching at Stanford University 1974 – President of APA March 15, retired from Stanford University

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Conditions necessary for observational learning to occur: 1. Attentional Processes: to the behavior on which the learning might be based 2. Retention Processes: of the observed scene when the opportunity arises later to exploit the learning, 3. Motor Reproduction Processes: the observed behavior 4. Reinforcement and Motivational Processes: of the behavior – in other words, you need to be able to do what you saw being done.

BOBO DOLL In 1961, the researchers verbally and physically abused an inflatable Bobo doll in front of pre-school aged children. After the children observed the adult’s behavior to the doll they acted toward the doll in the same manner. This experiment proved that children learn by observing another’s behavior.

SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action." (Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 1977)

SELF-EFFICACY “The belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations” (Bandura. 1995). “An outcome expectancy is defined as a person’s estimate that a given behavior will lead to certain outcomes. An efficacy expectation is the conviction that one can successfully execute the behavior required to produce outcomes” (Bandura)

“People's beliefs about their efficacy can be developed by four main sources of influence. The most effective way of creating a strong sense of efficacy is through mastery experiences. Successes build a robust belief in one's personal efficacy. Failures undermine it, especially if failures occur before a sense of efficacy is firmly established.” (1994. Bandura)

Actual Performance (or mastery experience) The most influential self-efficacy appraisal which states that if one repeatedly succeeds at a task or activity the level of efficacy will rise in that person. “The most effective way of creating a strong sense of efficacy is through mastery experience. Successes build a robust belief in one’s personal efficacy. Failure undermines it, especially if failures occur before a sense of efficacy is firmly established.”

Vicarious Experience Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by sustained effort raises observers' beliefs that they too possess the capabilities to master comparable activities required to succeed. “If we see others succeed at a task, we infer that we can do it too.” “This is especially true if we believe others have roughly the same abilities as we do” (Crain, 214).

Verbal Persuasion A self-efficacy appraisal which is similar to a pep talk. When someone is told that they will do well at a certain task they will be more likely to succeed because of the positive encouragement. “Easier to sustain a sense of efficacy, especially when struggling with difficulties, if significant others express faith in one’s capabilities than if they convey doubts.” (Bandura)

Physiological Cues A self-efficacy appraisal which is when one judges their ability to succeed based on bodily signs (such as fatigue, shortness of breath, or sweaty palms) which would hinder their confidence. Not included in our research study.

Question Is an individual’s actual performance, as Albert Bandura states, the most significant basis for a child’s self-efficacy appraisal? Or does verbal persuasion and vicarious experience have a greater impact on an individual’s self-efficacy appraisal? To what extent does actual performance impact one’s self-efficacy appraisal, especially in regard to their ability to solve riddles?

Hypothesis We believe that Bandura was accurate in his perception of self-efficacy; moreover, we believe that actual performance is going to be the most important factor in increasing an individual’s self-efficacy and in turn success in solving a riddle.

Self-efficacy vs. confidence Confidence: Colloquial term that refers to the strength of belief However, it does not necessarily specify what the certainty is about. Perceived Self-Efficacy: Refers to belief in one’s agentive capabilities, that one can produce given levels of attainment. Includes both an affirmation of a capability level and the strength of that belief. Self-confidence differs from self-efficacy in that self- efficacy is a specific perception about one’s ability to conduct a particular behavior (Bandura, 1997).

Motivation: Activation to action. Level of motivation is reflected in choice of courses of action, and in the intensity and persistence of effort. Perceived Self-Efficacy: People's beliefs about their capabilities to produce effects. Self-Regulation: Exercise of influence over one's own motivation, thought processes, emotional states and patterns of behavior.

Research Study The study was set at The Highlands School in Irving, TX. We worked with children in the 2 nd grade. We separated the children into 3 groups and asked them to solve a riddle. Each group incorporated one of the self-efficacy appraisals.

Questionnaire One: 1 – Poor, I never get them. 2 – Fair, I don’t usually get them 3 – Average, I sometimes I do, sometimes I don’t 4 – Good, I usually get them 5 – Excellent, I always get them 1. How good are you at solving riddles? Use the scale above. 2. Have you ever solved a riddle before? 3. Were the riddles easy or difficult? (Rate between 1 and 5 with 1 being the easiest and 5 the most difficult.) 4. Do you like problems that require critical-thinking? Are you good at thinking critically or logically? 5. What is your favorite class or activity at school? Why? 6. Is there something that you practice or do over and over (such as playing an instrument, throwing the baseball, or feeding your baby sister)? If so, how does it make you feel when you are successful or not as successful at a task? 7. When you see a friend doing something (such as riding bikes or doing homework) do you think you can do it too? Why do you think you can or cannot do what your friend does? 8. Have you ever been given a pep talk? If so, how did that make you feel?

Questionnaire Two: 1 – Poor, I never get them. 2 – Fair, I don’t usually get them 3 – Average, I sometimes I do, sometimes I don’t 4 – Good, I usually get them 5 – Excellent, I always get them 1. How good are you at solving riddles? Use the scale above. 2. Was the riddle you just solved easy or difficult? (Rate between 1 and 5 with 1 being the easiest and 5 the most difficult) 3. Do you like solving riddles? 4. Do you want to solve another riddle?

Questionnaire Three 1.What is it that most makes you feel like you can do something? (Circle the ones that are true for you) When you are with your family When you are with your friends When you see somebody else doing it When you are by yourself When someone helps you When you have done it before When instructions are given 2. Is it helpful for someone to give you a pep talk? Or do you like to practice first? Or do you like to see that a lot of other people can do it too?

Riddle A What gets wetter and wetter as it dries?

A towel

Riddle B If you’re inside you look out, and if you’re outside you look in, but what looks both ways?

A window

Verbal Persuasion Age/GenderSelf- Appraisal Prediction before Actual Performance Second Prediction Increased/ Decreased after treatment Student W7/MaleAverage 3 CorrectAverage 3 Same Student X8/MaleExcellent 5 IncorrectGood 4 Decreased Student Y7/FemaleExcellent 5 CorrectExcellent 5 Same Student Z12/ FemaleGood 4 CorrectExcellent 5 Increased +1

Verbal Persuasion

Vicarious Experience Age/GenderSelf-Appraisal Prediction before told anything Actual Performance (correct or incorrect) Second Prediction (after told others solved the riddle, but before (s)he solved the riddle) Increased/ Decreased after treatment Student 19/MaleAverage 3 CorrectGood 4 Increased +1 Student 210/MaleAverage 3 IncorrectAverage 3 Same Student 310/FemaleGood 4 CorrectExcellent 5 Increased +1 Student 410/FemaleGood 4 CorrectGood 4 Same

Vicarious Experience

Actual Performance Age/GenderSelf- Appraisal Prediction before Actual Performanc e Riddle 1 Self- Appraisal after 1 st riddle Actual Performanc e Riddle 2 Self Appraisal after 2 nd riddle Increased/ Decreased after treatment Student A13/FemalePoor 2 CorrectAverage 3 CorrectExcellent 5 Increased Student B6/MaleGood 4 IncorrectAverage 3 CorrectExcellent 5 Increased Student C7/MalePoor 2 IncorrectAverage 3 IncorrectAverage 3 Increased Student D7/MaleGood 4 CorrectGood 4 CorrectExcellent 5 Increased

Actual Performance

Sources of Self- Efficacy Bandura says…Self-appraisal prediction (before treatment) Self-appraisal after treatment Vicarious Experience Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by sustained effort raises observers’ beliefs that they too possess the capabilities to master comparable activities required to succeed. “If we see others succeed at a task, we infer that we can do it too.” “This is especially true if we believe others have roughly the same abilities as we do” (Crain, 214). “If people of widely differing characteristics can succeed, then observers have a reasonable basis for increasing their own sense of self-efficacy” (Psychological Review, 197) Verbal Persuasion A self-efficacy appraisal which is similar to a pep talk. When someone is told that they will do well at a certain task they will be more likely to succeed because of the positive encouragement. “Easier to sustain a sense of efficacy, especially when struggling with difficulties, if significant others express faith in one’s capabilities than if they convey doubts.” 4.25 Actual Performance The most influential self- efficacy appraisal which states that if one repeatedly succeeds at a task or activity the level of efficacy will rise in that person. “The most effective way of creating a strong sense of efficacy is through mastery experience. Successes build a robust belief in one’s personal efficacy. Failure undermines it, especially if failures occur before a sense of efficacy is firmly established.” 34.5

Nature vs. Nurture Skinner Piaget Locke Bandura Rousseau NATURENURTURE “Nurture shapes nature” (Bandura. APA address, 1998). Montessori Vygotsky

Things to improve: Observe older children Use simplified questionnaires Have a more controlled environment when conducting the experiment

Further Questions for Study How does gender influence one’s self- efficacy? What role does culture play on self- efficacy?