Models of Communication: communicative competence (monocultural) & the training of communicative skills Seminar: The training of cross-cultural competence and skills Lecturer: Prof. Dr. Jürgen Beneke Speaker: Antje Stillahn Date: 6 November 2001

Contents 1. Models of Communication What is communication? What is communicative competence? 2. The Training of Communicative Skills (based on Schulz von Thun’s model) 3. Moving towards Intercultural Communication (discussion)

1. Models of Communication What is communication? What is communicative competence?

A Definition “communication [Lat. communicatio ‘the action of imparting‘] In its broadest sense, this term refers to every kind of mutual transmission of information using signs or symbols between living beings (humans, animals), between people and data-processing machines. [...]” (Bussmann 1996:83)

A Definition (continued) “In its narrower, linguistic sense, communication is the understanding which occurs between humans through linguistic and non-linguistic means like gestures, mimicry and voice ( non-verbal communication). The basic components of communication are shown in communication models. [...]” (Bussmann 1996:83)

Models of Communication Aristotle‘s Rhetoric De Saussure‘s Model of the Speech Circuit Shannon‘s and Weaver‘s Model Gerbner‘s General Model Bühler‘s and Jakobson‘s Models Watzlawick’s, Beavin’s, and Jackson’s Model Schulz von Thun’s Model

Aristotle’s Rhetoric Three elements of communication: the speaker the speech the audience (http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/MUHome/cshtml/introductory/aristotle.html)

Models of Communication Aristotle‘s Rhetoric De Saussure‘s Model of the Speech Circuit Shannon‘s and Weaver‘s Model Gerbner‘s General Model Bühler‘s and Jakobson‘s Models Watzlawick‘s, Beavin‘s, and Jackson‘s Model Schulz von Thun‘s Model

De Saussure’s Model of the Speech Circuit (1916) Phonation Audition c i c: concept i: image acoustique (acoustic image) c i Phonation Audition (http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb8/misc/lfb/html7text/6-1frame.html)

Models of Communication Aristotle‘s Rhetoric De Saussure‘s Model of the Speech Circuit Shannon‘s and Weaver‘s Model Gerbner‘s General Model Bühler‘s and Jakobson‘s Models Watzlawick’s, Beavin’s, and Jackson’s Model Schulz von Thun’s Model

The Shannon-Weaver Model (1949) received signal message signal message information source transmitter receiver destination channel noise source (http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/MUHome/cshtml/introductory/sw.html)

The Shannon-Weaver Model – Criticism the ‘conduit metaphor’ (Reddy 1979) linearity content and meaning instrumentalism context relationships and purposes time medium (cf. http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Functions/mcs.html)

The Shannon-Weaver Model – Extension information source transmitter receiver destination channel noise source feedback (cf. http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/MUHome/cshtml/introductory/sw.html)

The Shannon-Weaver Model – Extension by Moles (1963) information source transmitter receiver destination channel noise source code 1 code 2 (http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb8/misc/lfb/html7text/6-2frame.html)

Models of Communication Aristotle‘s Rhetoric De Saussure‘s Model of the Speech Circuit Shannon‘s and Weaver‘s Model Gerbner‘s General Model Bühler‘s and Jakobson‘s Models Watzlawick’s, Beavin’s, and Jackson’s Model Schulz von Thun’s Model

Gerbner’s General Model (1956) PERCEPTUAL DIMENSION M Selection Context Availability E Event E1 Source Channels Media Control MEANS AND CONTROL DIMENSION Destination M2 S Form E Con- tent SE1 (cf. Gerbner 1956, in: Corner; Hawthorn (eds.) 1989:18)

Models of Communication Aristotle‘s Rhetoric De Saussure‘s Model of the Speech Circuit Shannon‘s and Weaver‘s Model Gerbner‘s General Model Bühler‘s and Jakobson‘s Models Watzlawick’s, Beavin’s, and Jackson’s Model Schulz von Thun’s Model

Bühler’s Organon Model (1934) Objects and States of Affairs Representation Expression S Receiver Sender Appeal (http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb8/misc/lfb/html/text6.html)

Jakobson’s Model of Communicative Functions (1960) Type Oriented Function Example towards emotive addresser expressing It’s bloody feelings or pissing down attitudes again! referential context imparting It’s raining. information conative addressee influencing Wait here till it behaviour stops raining! (cf. http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Functions/mcs.html)

Jakobson’s Model of Communicative Functions (1960) Type Oriented Function Example towards phatic contact establishing or Nasty weather maintaining again, isn’t it? social relationships metalingual code referring to the This is the nature of the weather interaction forecast. poetic message foregrounding It droppeth as textual features the gentle rain from heaven. (http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Functions/mcs.html)

Models of Communication Aristotle‘s Rhetoric De Saussure‘s Model of the Speech Circuit Shannon‘s and Weaver‘s Model Gerbner‘s General Model Bühler‘s and Jakobson‘s Models Watzlawick’s, Beavin’s, and Jackson’s Model Schulz von Thun’s Model

Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson (1967): Pragmatics of Human Communication One cannot not communicate. (Watzlawick and others 1967:51) Every communication has a content and a relationship aspect such that the latter classifies the former and is therefore a metacommunication.(Watzlawick and others 1967:54)

Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson (1967) – Content and Relationship Levels Is that a real diamond (cf. Birkenbihl 1987:256)

Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson (1967) – Content and Relationship Levels (cf. Birkenbihl 1987:25/)

Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson (1967) – Content and Relationship Levels It’s nice to see Mary... CONTENT RELATIONSHIP (cf. Birkenbihl 1987:258)

Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson (1967) – Content and Relationship Levels analytical thinking, words CONTENT RELATIONSHIP older parts of the brain: emotions (cf. Birkenbihl 1987:258)

Information about this information verbal, nonverbal; context Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson (1967) – Content and Relationship Levels Information Information about this information verbal, nonverbal; context (cf. Birkenbihl 1987:259)

Models of Communication Aristotle‘s Rhetoric De Saussure‘s Model of the Speech Circuit Shannon‘s and Weaver‘s Model Gerbner‘s General Model Bühler‘s and Jakobson‘s Models Watzlawick’s, Beavin’s, and Jackson’s Model Schulz von Thun’s Model

Schulz von Thun's Model (1977) – Four Aspects of a Message .......... Content Self- dis- closure Sender Message Appeal Receiver //////////////////////////////// Relationship (cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:30)

Schulz von Thun's Model (1977) – Four Aspects of a Message ........ The traffic light is green. THE TRAFFIC LIGHT IS GREEN Put your foot down! I’m in a hurry. ////////////////////////// You need my help! (cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:31)

Schulz von Thun's Model (1977) – Three Aspects of a Non-verbal Message ........ Please comfort me! I am sad. ////////////////////////// You hurt me! (cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:34)

Schulz von Thun's Model (1977) – Three Aspects of a Non-verbal Message ........ Please go on talking. I am listening. saying nothing ////////////////////////// Your ideas are interesting. (cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:35)

Schulz von Thun's Model (1977) – Receiving with Four Ears What kind of person is he? What are the facts? How does he talk to me? Who does he think I am? What does he want me to think or do, how does he want me to feel? (cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:45)

Schulz von Thun's Model (1977) Well, if you don‘t like my cooking, you can go and have your dinner elsewhere! What are those green things in the sauce? (cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:62)

Schulz von Thun's Model (1977) – Four Aspects of a Message ...... ...... There is something green. There is something green. Don‘t put green things into the sauce next time! I don’t know what it is. Tell me what it is! sent message I don’t like it. received message /////////////////// /////////////////// You‘ll know it. You are a bad cook! (cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:63)

Schulz von Thun's Model (1977) ....... ....... Sent Message Sender Receiver Received Message /////////////////////// ...... /////////////////////// Feedback /////////////////// (cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:81)

Communicative Competence “Communicative Competence describes the speaker’s ability to select from the totality of grammatical expressions available to him, forms which appropriately reflect the social norms governing behavior in specific encounters.” (Hymes 1972:270, in: Beneke (ed.) 1993:76)

Communicative Competence “From a sociolinguistic perspective, communicative competence includes the following: (a) LINGUISTIC KNOWLEDGE: verbal and nonverbal codes, and the range of possible variants (b) INTERACTION SKILLS: sociolinguistic rules for appropriate use, discourse organization and processes, and strategies for achieving goals (c) CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE: social structure, values and beliefs, and cognitive maps or schemata for the content domains” (Saville-Troike 1992, in: Bright 1992:273)

2. The Training of Communicative Skills (based on Schulz von Thun’s model)

Congruent versus Incongruent Messages ....... ....... ////////////////////////// ////////////////////////// Everything‘s just fine! My life is a total disaster. (cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:36)

Receiving with One of Four Ears Self- disclosure Facts Appeal Relationship (cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:45)

Three Stages of Receiving a Message perceiving interpreting feeling (cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:74)

Metacommunication CONTENT RELATIONSHIP analytical thinking, words older parts of the brain: emotions (cf. Birkenbihl 1987:258)

.......... Metacommunication Content 2) I-messages (Self-disclosure) 3) Wishes (Appeal) (Leave the content level!) //////////////////////////////// 1) Explicit Metacommunication (Relationship) (cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:201)

3. Moving towards Intercultural Communication Why is intercultural communication much more difficult than monocultural communication? (discussion)

References Beneke, Jürgen (1993): “English as the medium of intercultural communication: Some teaching suggestions“. In: Beneke, Jürgen (ed.) (1993), pp. 69-101 Beneke, Jürgen (ed.) (1993): Communication in Aviation : A collection of papers edited on behalf of IACTFLAP. Bonn : Dümmler (Sprachen und Sprachenlernen: 312; Dümmlerbuch 6312) Birkenbihl, Vera F. (1987): Kommunikationstraining : Zwischenmenschliche Beziehungen erfolgreich gestalten. 8. Aufl. Landsberg am Lech : mgv-Verlag Bright, William (ed. in chief) (1992): International Encyclopedia of Linguistics : Volume 2 : Expl - Moot. New York : Oxford University Press Bussmann, Hadumod (1996): Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. London : Routledge

References Chandler, Daniel (1995): The Transmission Model of Communication. (last modified: 9 May 2000, last accessed: 5 November 2001) <http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Functions/mcs.html> Corner, John; Hawthorn, Jeremy (eds.) (1989): Communication Studies : an introductory reader. 3rd ed. London : Arnold Gerbner, George (1956): A generalized graphic model of communication. In : Corner, John; Hawthorn, Jeremy (eds.) (1989), pp. 17-18 Ipsen, Guido (1999): The Interactive MultiMedia Linguistics for Beginners : 6. Communication. (this version: May 1999, introduced: 20 July 2000, last accessed: 23 October 2001) <http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb8/misc/lfb/html/text/6.html>

References Schulz von Thun, Friedemann (1994): Miteinander reden 1 : Störungen und Klärungen : Allgemeine Psychologie der Kommunikation. Reinbek bei Hamburg : Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag (rororo ; 7489) Saville-Troike, Muriel (1992): “Communicative Competence“. In : Bright, William (ed.) (1992), p. 273 Underwood, Mick (1997-2001): CCMS - Communication studies, cultural studies, media studies infobase. (last accessed: 23 October 2001) <http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/MUHome/cshtml/index.html> Watzlawick, Paul; Beavin, Janet H.; Jackson, Don D. (1967): Pragmatics of Human Communication : A Study of Interactional Patterns, Pathologies, and Paradoxes. New York : W. W. Norton & Company