The Topics of Argument Julie Tedder

Within rhetorical invention, the topics or topoi are basic categories of relationships among ideas, each of which can serve as a template or heuristic for discovering things to say about a subject. "Topics of invention" literally means "places to find things." Aristotle divided these into the "Common" and "Special" topics of invention.

The Special Topics

You have an occasion, you have a reader, and you have a message (your response to the essay prompt). The next thing you need to consider is what type of rhetoric you going to be using. The special topics help you with this. They define the purpose of your essay. There are three special topics, one dealing with issues of the PAST, one dealing with issues of the PRESENT, and one dealing with issues of the FUTURE.

Three Special Topics: Ceremonial (Epideictic) Judicial Deliberative

Ceremonial Address Praising and Blaming Virtue and Vice Tied to the PRESENT – whether someone or something is noble or base Examples: Graduation speeches Memorial services Dedications

Ceremonial Address The Praiseworthy (Virtuous) –Courage –Temperance –Justice –Liberality –Magnanimity –Prudence –Gentleness

Ceremonial Address The Blameworthy –Cowardice –Incontinence –Injustice –Illiberality –Meanness of spirit –Rashness –Brutality

Judicial Address Deal with Justice and Injustice Deals with whether an act of the PAST is right or wrong, whether someone is guilty or innocent. Examples: The Declaration of Independence Editorials denouncing policy Forensic Courtroom Cases

Judicial Questions Evidence –What is the evidence –Method of evidence gathering –Reliability of evidence –Credibility of witnesses

Judicial Questions Definition –What specifically is the charge being made? –What is the legal definition of the alleged injustice? Written, promulgated law Unwritten, natural law Rights: positive and negative –Who was harmed?

Judicial Questions Motives or causes: intention, motives, character of doer and victim, extenuating circumstance

Deliberative Address Deals with the good, the worthy, the advantageous / the bad, the unworthy, the disadvantageous Deals with FUTURE decisions that must be made (goodness for goodness’ sake, advantageous to most/some) Examples: Henry’s Speech to the Virginia Convention Congressional or Supreme Court decisions Declarations of War

The Common Topics

Now that you have considered your occasion, reader, type of rhetoric, special appeals as well as generated a thesis statement, you need to dig into the specific content of your particular essay. To this end, you use the common topics, a list of topics from which you ‘invent’ arguments for each paragraph of the essay about your subject, “A”.

Five Categories of Common Topics: Definition Comparison Relationship Circumstance Testimony

Definition by Genus A is B, meaning A (as a category) belongs within the category of B. –All men are mortal beings. –Socrates is a man. –Some college students are taxpayers. –No professors are college students.

Definition by Division B, C, and D comprise A. A is composed of B, C, and D.

Comparison Argument of similarity –Made to show similarity when difference is the most obvious quality Argument of difference –Made to show difference when similarity is the most obvious quality Argument of degree –Greater/lesser, more/less, better/worse arguments –Frequently inverts the common perception

Relationship Cause and effect –Key issue is adequacy. –Multiple causation and/or effect Antecedent-consequent –Result of human decision-making –Consequent is likely, not certain Contraries –Establishing opposite or opposing conditions Contradictories –Denial or negation only

Circumstance Arguing from present knowledge Future fact –Prediction Past fact –Recreating the past Possiblity/Impossibility –A fortiori argument (If one thing is likely, how much more likely is something stronger? If one thing is not likely, how much less likely is something weaker?)

Testimony Emphasis on who is speaking Authority Testimonial Statistics Maxim/Proverb Law Precedent Oath/Affidafit Witnesses Supernatural Force/Events

Through understanding the Topics of Invention, we can not only more efficiently compose our own arguments, but we can better discern the purpose of the arguments of others!