Professor Sanjoy Bandopadhya Ustad Alauddin Khan Professor of Instrumental Music Rabindra Bharati University, Kolkata

 Premises in Logic  Deductive Logic  Inductive Logic  Empirical Research

 In logic, an argument is a set of one or more declarative sentences (or "propositions") known as the premises along with another declarative sentence (or "proposition") known as the conclusion. Example: MA program is taught in universities. [Premise] M.A. program is taught at Rabindra Bharati [Premise] Rabindra Bharati is a university [Conclusion]

 Deductive reasoning, also called deductive logic, is reasoning which constructs or evaluates deductive arguments.  Deductive arguments are attempts to show that a conclusion necessarily follows from a set of premises or hypotheses. A deductive argument is valid if the conclusion does follow necessarily from the premises, i.e., if the conclusion must be true provided that the premises are true. A deductive argument is sound if it is valid and its premises are true. Deductive arguments are valid or invalid, sound or unsound, but are never false nor true.

 Deductive reasoning is a method of gaining knowledge. An example of a deductive argument: 1. All men are mortal 2. Socrates is a man 3. Therefore, Socrates is mortal  The first premise states that all objects classified as "men" have the attribute "mortal". The second premise states that "Socrates" is classified as a man – a member of the set "men". The conclusion states that "Socrates" must be mortal because he inherits this attribute from his classification as a man.

Law of detachment  The law of detachment is the first form of deductive reasoning. A single conditional statement is made, and then a hypothesis (P) is stated. The conclusion (Q) is deduced from the hypothesis and the statement. The most basic form is listed below: 1. P → Q 2. P (Hypothesis stated) 3. Q (Conclusion given)  We can conclude Q from P by using the law of detachment from deductive reasoning.[1] However, if the conclusion (Q) is given instead of the hypothesis (P) then there is no valid conclusion.  The following is an example of an argument using the law of detachment in the form of an If-then statement: 1. If m ∠ A>90°, then A is an obtuse angle. 2. m ∠ A=120°. 3. ∠ A is an obtuse angle.  Since the measurement of angle A is greater than 90° degrees, we can deduce by that statement alone that A is an obtuse angle.

Law of syllogism  The law of syllogism takes two conditional statements and forms a conclusion by combining the hypothesis of one statement with the conclusion of another. The following is an example: 1. If Rupa is sick, then she will be absent from school. 2. If Rupa is absent, then she will miss her class-work. 3. If Rupa is sick, then she will miss her class-work.  We deduced the solution by combining the hypothesis of the first problem with the conclusion of the second statement.

 Deductive arguments are generally evaluated in terms of their validity and soundness.  An argument is valid if it is impossible for its premises to be true while its conclusion is false. In other words, the conclusion must be true if the premises, whatever they may be, are true. An argument can be valid even though the premises are false.  An argument is sound if it is valid and the premises are true.

 Empirical research is a way of gaining knowledge by means of direct observation or experience.  Empirical evidence (the record of one's direct observations or experiences) can be analyzed quantitatively or qualitatively. Through quantifying the evidence or making sense of it in qualitative form, a researcher can answer empirical questions, which should be clearly defined and answerable with the evidence collected (usually called data).  Many researchers combine qualitative and quantitative forms of analysis to better answer questions which cannot be studied in laboratory settings, particularly in the social sciences and in education.

 Quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of social phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques.  The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships.

 Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in- depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. The qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making, not just what, where, when.  This method is widely adapted in Social Science, Ethnology, Music and other disciplines.  Mix method may be used to solve certain Research Problems. Mix method will involve different research methods.

 Qualitative Research Method [or Mixed Method] is widely used in music researches so the follow–up discussion will focus on the general areas of Qualitative Research Method.

 Qualitative researchers may use different approaches in collecting data. interviews and group discussions, observation and reflection field notes, various texts, pictures, and other materials. This may also include narratology, storytelling, and so on.  There may be many other alternative methods, some of them will be discussed in later lectures. An example may ‘Ground Theory’ that is a different approach.

 Ethnographic Research, used for investigating cultures by collecting and describing data that is intended to help in the development of a theory. This method is also called “ethno-methodology” or "methodology of the people".  An example of applied ethnographic research, is the study of a particular culture and their understanding of the role of a particular disease in their cultural framework.

 Historical Research, allows one to discuss past and present events in the context of the present condition, and allows one to reflect and provide possible answers to current issues and problems.  Historical research helps us in answering questions such as: Where have we come from, where are we, who are we now and where are we going?

 Grounded Theory, is an inductive type of research, based or “grounded” in the observations or data from which it was developed; it uses a variety of data sources, including quantitative data, review of records, interviews, observation and surveys.

 Phenomenology, describes the “subjective reality” of an event, as perceived by the study population; it is the study of a phenomenon.

 Interpretive techniques The most common analysis of qualitative data is observer impression. That is, expert or bystander observers examine the data, interpret it via forming an impression and report their impression in a structured and sometimes quantitative form.

 Coding is an interpretive technique that both organizes the data and provides a means to introduce the interpretations of it into certain quantitative methods. Most coding requires the analyst to read the data and demarcate segments within it. Each segment is labeled with a “code” – usually a word or short phrase that suggests how the associated data segments inform the research objectives. When coding is complete, the analyst prepares reports via a mix of: summarizing the prevalence of codes, discussing similarities and differences in related codes across distinct original sources/contexts, or comparing the relationship between one or more codes.

 Contemporary qualitative data analyses are sometimes supported by computer programs, termed Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software. These programs do not supplant the interpretive nature of coding but rather are aimed at enhancing the analyst’s efficiency at data storage/retrieval and at applying the codes to the data.  Many programs offer efficiencies in editing and revising coding, which allow for work sharing, peer review, and recursive examination of data.

 Some qualitative datasets are analyzed without coding. A common method here is recursive abstraction, where datasets are summarized, those summaries are then further summarized, and so on. The end result is a more compact summary that would have been difficult to accurately discern without the preceding steps of distillation.

 Some techniques rely on leveraging computers to scan and sort large sets of qualitative data. At their most basic level, mechanical techniques rely on counting words, phrases, or coincidences of tokens within the data. Often referred to as content analysis, the output from these techniques is amenable to many advanced statistical analyses.

 A central issue in qualitative research is validity (also known as credibility and/or dependability). There are many different ways of establishing validity, like auditability, confirmability, etc. [details will be taken up at a later time]