Darfur © 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. World Conflicts Today TM CultureGrams presents Warning: You may find some of these images disturbing. For best results, view slideshows in Firefox

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. Darfur is a desert region located in the far west of Sudan, the biggest country in Africa.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. It is home to numerous tribal groups, many of which have a long history of intermarriage and economic cooperation. All are black, African, and Muslim.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. Since violence broke out in 2003, tribal groups have increasingly identified themselves as either African or Arab. U.S. politicians, journalists, and celebrities have also described Darfuris in these terms.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. The roots of today’s ongoing conflict date back to 1916, the year British forces invaded Darfur to put down an uprising against Sudan’s British and Egyptian rulers. Darfur at that time was an autonomous region.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. After the war, British administrators made Darfur part of Sudan and divided it into several regions, or dars.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. Each dar had a tribal leader and a tribal court, which resolved disputes over water rights and land and animal ownership.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. Conflicts often broke out between herders (who were mostly Arabs) and farmers (who were mostly Africans). The tribal courts prevented these conflicts from getting out of hand.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. After the British left Sudan in 1956, competition for political offices arose among Darfur’s Arabs and Africans.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. The Arabs, who formed a slight majority, looked to elections as a means of ending centuries of largely non-Arab rule, while the large African tribes, notably the Fur, saw elections as a chance to legitimize their historic hold on political power in Darfur.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. Electoral disputes soured relations between these groups. But no outright tribal warfare erupted, with tensions eased by a relative abundance of fertile land and by region-wide anger at the failure of the Sudanese government in Khartoum to adequately fund programs in Darfur.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. In the 1980s, a series of droughts in Darfur worsened inter-tribal relations. As good agricultural land became scarce, African farmers who had traditionally allowed Arab herders to graze cattle on their farms began barring access.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. Stripped of their livelihood, many young Darfuri Arabs were recruited by Libyan leader Muammar Qaddafi. In the late 1980s, they joined Arabs from other countries to fight for the establishment of the Arab Belt, an Arab super-state spanning most of northern Africa.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. Qaddafi’s Arabs were defeated by the Chadian army, leaving the Darfuri Arabs to return to their homes with guns and a dangerous ideology of Arab supremacy.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. Even while they fought each other, Darfuris from all tribes had traditionally found common cause in resenting the Sudanese government. This started to change in 1989, when Omar al-Bashir, an Arab general, came to power in a coup.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. As president, Bashir surrounded himself by a cabal of ruthless, power-hungry military men who believed passionately that Sudan, and all its natural resources, belonged to the Arabs.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. In 1992, these men ordered the Sudanese military to work with Arab militias in removing a non-Arab people, the Nuba, from a mountainous region in southern Darfur.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. Six years later, they orchestrated a similarly brutal campaign to take control of the oil fields in Sudan’s largely non-Arab southern half.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. In 1999, a power struggle between President Bashir (left) and his second-in-command Hassan al-Turabi (right) landed Turabi in jail. Turabi had been instrumental in winning Darfuri support for Khartoum. An influential Islamist ideologist, he had convinced Darfuri Africans that they did not have to be Arabs to be good Muslims.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. With Turabi gone, the few Darfuri Africans serving in Bashir’s government were quickly purged. They returned home to form one of Darfur’s two main rebel groups, the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM).

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. The other main rebel group was the Sudanese Liberation Army (SLA). In 2003, SLA rebels attacked government troops at Darfur’s El Fasher airport, demanding that Khartoum end its long neglect of the Darfur region.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. Rather than deal with the rebels’ demands, the Sudanese government armed Arab militias, the janjaweed, and charged them with putting down the Darfuri uprising.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. Starting in the summer of 2003, the janjaweed rode into African communities, killing and raping the inhabitants. Survivors fled in terror.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. The lucky ones made it to refugee camps in Chad.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. Word of the atrocities spread in 2004, prompting the United Nations Security Council to pass a resolution calling on the Sudanese government to disarm the janjaweed.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. No punishment was threatened for non-compliance, and collaboration between the Sudanese military and the janjaweed reportedly continued. Thousands more Darfuri Africans died, and entire villages were destroyed.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. Several thousand African Union troops arrived in 2004 and 2005 to serve as peacekeepers.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. But, in a region bigger than California, there was a limit to what they could achieve. Attacks by the janjaweed persisted, and refugee camps filled up.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. Meanwhile, the rebels—never angels but for a long time far less violent than the janjaweed— complicated prospects for peace by fighting among themselves and attacking Arab herders and even some international aid workers.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. Despite the mounting troubles, the Sudanese government and most of the SLA faction signed a peace agreement on May 5, 2006.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. The agreement gave Darfuris much of what the rebels initially wanted, including a US$300 million payment and the right to form a regional government.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. But the JEM and a small faction of the SLA held out for more. In-fighting among these groups and the failure of the Sudanese government to rein in the janjaweed effectively killed the peace agreement.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. A joint UN/AU peacekeeping mission was deployed to Darfur but could do little to stop the Sudanese military and janjaweed militias in pursuit of JEM rebels from killing civilians.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. The International Criminal Court indicted President Bashir for genocide in 2008 and issued a warrant for his arrest for war crimes a year later. The move was applauded in the United States and other Western states but criticized by several Arab and African leaders as well as aid organizations, who feared it would make humanitarian work in Darfur more difficult and jeopardize the increasingly fragile peace deal with the south.

© 2010 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. © 2010 Getty Images, Inc. As tribal clashes intensified in southern Sudan, violence waned in Darfur. But until the security of Darfuri civilians, including nearly three million refugees, is assured, the conflict will not be over.