Patterns Of Inheritance Chapter 10

Genetics Genetics is the branch of science that studies how the characteristics of living organisms are inherited.

Genetics Classical genetics uses an understanding of meiosis to make predictions about the kinds of genes that will be inherited by the offspring of a sexually reproducing pair of organisms. Offspring are the descendants of a set of parents.

Allele An allele is a specific version of a gene. Two different alleles of a gene can produce different versions of the same type of protein.

Genome A genome is a set of all the genes necessary for all an organism’s characteristics. A genome is diploid (2n) when it has two copies of each gene. A haploid (n) cell has only one copy of each gene.

Genome Sex cells (eggs and sperm) are haploid. When a haploid sperm (n) from a male and a haploid egg (n) from a female combine, they form a diploid (2n) cell, called a zygote.

Genome Meiosis is a cell’s process for making haploid cells. The alleles from the sperm and the alleles from the egg combine to form a unique organism.

Phenotype and Genotype Diploid organisms have two copies of each of their genes. It is possible for the copies to be different versions of the gene.

Phenotype and Genotype The term allele is used to identify different versions of a gene. The genotype of an organism is the combination of alleles that are present in the organism’s cells. The phenotype of an organism is how it appears outwardly and is a result of the organisms genotype.

Dominant and Recessive Alleles A dominant allele masks the recessive allele in the phenotype of an organism. Geneticists use the capital letter to denote that an allele is dominant and the lowercase letter to denote that an allele is recessive.

Gene or Condition: earlobe shape Allele SymbolsPossible GenotypesPhenotype E = freeEEFree earlobes E = free, e = attachedEeFree earlobes e = attachedeeAttached earlobes

Homozygous vs. Heterozygous If an organism has two identical alleles for a characteristic it can produce sex cells with only one type of allele. The genotype is said to be homozygous. If the organism has two different alleles for a characteristic it can produce two kinds of sex cells with different alleles. The genotype is said to be heterozygous.

Gene or Condition: earlobe type Allele SymbolsPossible GenotypePhenotypePossible Sex Cells E = freeEE-homozygousFree EarlobesAll sex cells have E. E = free, e = attached Ee-heterozygousFree EarlobesHalf of the sex cells have E and half have e. e = attachedee-homozygousAttached earlobesAll sex cells have e.

Fertilization Fertilization is the process of two haploid (n) cells joining to form a zygote (2n). The union of sperm and egg is fertilization.

Fertilization The zygote divides by mitosis to produce additional diploid cells as the new organism grows.

Fertilization A genetic cross is a planned mating between two organisms. The exact egg and sperm that join when fertilization occurs are not entirely predictable; however, generalizations can be made about possible outcomes from two parents.

Punnett Square A Punnett square shows the possible offspring of a particular genetic cross. A single-factor cross is designed to look at how one genetically determined characteristic is inherited.

Punnett Square A monohybrid cross is a cross between two organisms that are both heterozygous for the one observed gene. A double-factor cross is a genetic study in which two different genetically determined characteristics are followed from the parental generation to the offspring at one time.

Monohybrid Cross

Mendelian Genetics The inheritance patterns we have discussed were originally described by Gregor Mendel. Mendel was a member of the religious order of Augustinian monks.

Mendelian Genetics Mendel described the inheritance patterns he observed in pea plants. The laws formulated for inheritance patterns are referred to as Mendelian genetics in honor of his work.

Gregor Johann Mendel

Dominant and Recessive Traits in Pea Plants

Punnett Square for Pod Color

Codominance In some inheritance situations, alleles lack total dominant and recessive relationships. Both alleles are expressed phenotypically to some degree.

Codominance This inheritance pattern is called codominance. The phenotype of both alleles is expressed in the heterozygous condition. With codominant alleles, all capital symbols are used with superscripts added.

Incomplete Dominance In incomplete dominance, the phenotype of a heterozygote is intermediate between the two homozygotes on a phenotypic gradient. The phenotypes appear to be “blended”. Snapdragon flowers are a good example of incomplete dominance.

Multiple Alleles The term multiple alleles refers to situations in which there are more than 2 possible alleles for a single trait. ABO blood type is a good example of multiple alleles. Alleles

Multiple Alleles – I A = blood with type A antigens. – I B = blood with type B antigens. – i = blood tyoe O with neither A or B antigens.

Multiple Alleles In the ABO system, A and B show codominance when they are together in an individual, but both are dominant over the O allele. These 3 alleles can be combined as pairs in six ways (6 genotypes), resulting in four phenotypes.

Gene: Blood Type Allele SymbolsPossible GenotypesPhenotype i = Type OIiType O I A = Type AIAIAIAIA Type A I A = Type AIAIiIAIi Type A I B = Type BIBIBIBIB Type B I B = Type BIBIiIBIi Type B IAIBIAIB Type AB

Polygenic Inheritance Some characteristics are determined by the interaction of several genes. This is called polygenic inheritance. Many different pairs of alleles combine to determine a characteristic. Skin color in humans is an example of this type of inheritance.

Pleiotropy A single gene may produce only one type of protein, yet have multiple effects on the phenotype of a person. The term pleiotropy describes the multiple effects a gene has on a phenotype.

Pleiotropy Marfan syndrome is a great example of pleiotropy. Marfan syndrome is a disorder of the connective tissue of the body.

Pleiotropy The phenotype is expressed by the following characteristsics: long arms and legs (disproportionate to the body), long fingers, skinniness, curvature of the spinee, abnormally shaped chest, nearsightedness, weak or defective heart valves, weak blood vessels prone to rupture, inflammation of the heart, collapsed lungs, and apnea.

Marfan Syndrome

Two Types of Chromosomes Sex Chromosome – control the sex of an organism Autosomes – not directly involved in sex determination. Of the 23 pairs of human chromosomes, 22 are autosomes.

Autosomal Linkage Autosomes have the same kinds of genes on both members of the homologous pair of chromosomes. If genes sit closely enough to each other on the chromosome, they are likely to be inherited together. Each chromosome represents a group of linked genes.

Sex Determination In mammals, the genes that determine maleness are located on a small chromosome known as the Y chromosome. Males have one X and one Y chromosome. Females have two X chromosomes.

Sex Linkage Sex Linkage occurs when genes are located on the chromosomes that determine the sex of an individual. The Y chromosome is much shorter than the X chromosome and therefore has fewer genes for traits than found on the X chromosome.

Sex Linkage Genes found only on the X chromosome are said to be X-linked genes. Genes found only on the Y chromosome are said to be Y-linked genes.