Chapter 11 Sexuality and Gender

Chapter Outline Sex Versus Gender Gender and Sexuality Theories of Gender Gender Inequality Toward 2050 The Women’s Movement Gender and Aggression

Question If you could temporarily be the other gender, how long would you like to do so? One day One week I have no desire to be the other gender

*Sex and Gender Your sex depends on whether you were born with male or female genitals and a genetic program that released male or female hormones to stimulate the development of your reproductive system. Your gender is your sense of being male or female and playing masculine and feminine roles as defined by your culture and society. Your gender identity is your identification with, or sense of belonging to, a particular sex— biologically, psychologically, and socially. Your gender role is the set of behaviors associated with widely shared expectations about how males or females are supposed to act.

*Gender and Sexuality Intersexed people have ambiguous genitals resulting from a hormone imbalance in the womb or some other cause. 18 in every 100,000 babies Transgendered people defy gender norms and blur accepted gender roles. 1 in every 5000 to 10,000 people. Transsexuals want to alter their gender by changing their appearance or by medical intervention. 1 in every 30,000 people.

*Gender and Sexuality Heterosexuals are people who prefer members of the opposite sex as sexual partners. Homosexuals prefer sexual partners of the same sex. Bisexuals enjoy sexual partners of either sex. Approximately 2.8% of American men and 1.4% of American women think of themselves as homosexual or bisexual.

Homosexuality In the U.S. Men Women Felt desire for sex with person of same sex. 7.7 7.5 Had some same-sex desire or experience or identified as homosexual or bisexual. 10.1 8.6

*Homosexuality In the U.S. Men Women Identified as homosexual or bisexual. 2.8 1.4 Had sex with person of same sex in past 12 months. 3.4 0.6 Had sex with person of same sex at least once since puberty. 5.3 3.5

*Aggression to Homosexuals 1998 study of 500 young adults in the San Francisco Bay area found: 1 in 10 admitted attacking or threatening people they believed were homosexuals. 1/3 of those who had not engaged in antigay aggression said they would do so if a homosexual flirted with, or propositioned, them.

*Homophobia Research suggests that some antigay crimes may result from repressed homosexual urges on the part of the aggressor. Aggressors are homophobic, or afraid of homosexuals, because they cannot cope with their own, possibly subconscious, homosexual impulses.

*Question What about sexual relations between two adults of the same sex -- do you think it is always wrong, almost always wrong, wrong only sometimes, or not wrong at all?

*GSS National Data: Homosexuality Age <30 30-49 50 and and up Always Wrong 53.2% 58.6% 73.5% Almost Always Wrong 11.6% 12.8% 9.9% Not wrong at all 35.2% 28.5% 16.5%

*Gender Inequality Occurs when one gender (usually men) has more power and authority than the other gender (typically women)

*Theories of Gender Differences Essentialism - gender differences reflect naturally evolved dispositions. Social constructionism - gender differences reflect the different social positions occupied by women and men.

*Essentialist Theories Freud - differences in anatomy account for the development of distinct masculine and feminine gender roles. Sociobiology and Evolutionary Psychology - Gender differences in behavior are based on biological differences that evolved to ensure the survival of the species.

4 Criticisms of Essentialism They ignore historical and cultural variability of gender and sexuality. They generalize from the average, ignoring variations within gender groups. No evidence directly supports their major claims. Their explanations for gender differences ignore the role of power.

Question Sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists argue that male-female differences are rooted in: reproductive strategies that women and men use to maximize the chance their offspring will survive differences in body physique and physical strength anatomical differences hormonal differences

Answer: a Sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists argue that male-female differences are rooted in: reproductive strategies that women and men use to maximize the chance their offspring will survive.

* Social Constructionism Theories Foraging societies - little if any gender inequality Horticultural and Pastoral societies Plow Agriculture Industrial Revolution

*Gender Inequality: Origins Foraging societies Horticultural and Pastoral societies began to experience more inequality as men moved into farming and animal care and women moved more toward taking care of home and children Plow Agriculture Industrial Revolution

*Gender Inequality: Origins Foraging societies Horticultural and Pastoral societies Plow Agriculture requires strength, which men have more of on average, than women. This further separated men and women. As men began to produce more than their group needed, they began to travel, trade and war with other groups Industrial Revolution

*Gender Inequality: Origins Foraging societies Horticultural and Pastoral societies Plow Agriculture Industrial Revolution led men away from home and into the public sector even more while women remained in the domestic/private sector. The idea developed during all of these changes that this was a natural division of labor.

Question Do you approve or disapprove of a married woman earning money in business or industry if she has a husband capable of supporting her? Approve Disapprove No opinion

Question If you were taking a new job and had your choice of a boss, would you prefer to work for a man or a woman? Man Woman No preference

*Today: The Earnings Gap In 2001, women over the age of 15 working full-time in the paid labor force earned 76% of what men earned.

*The Earnings Gap: Four Factors Gender discrimination. Heavy domestic responsibilities reduce women’s earnings. Women tend to be concentrated in low- wage occupations and industries. Work done by women is commonly considered less valuable than work done by men because it is viewed as involving fewer skills.

*Leading Occupations of Employed Women 16 Years and Older Median Weekly Earnings Food preparation and serving 56.4 339 Personal care (Hairdressers) 73.9 380 Business and financial 53.2 746 Production (Factory Workers) 30.4 405 Health support (caregivers of elderly) 46.5 573

*Leading Occupations of Employed Women 16 Years and Older Median Weekly Earnings Administrative Support (secretaries) 75.9 636 Sales (sales clerks) 49.3 464 Education (Teachers) 72.5 729 Management 26.4 871 Health Care Practitioner (nurses) 72.9 808

*Labor Force Participation Rate

*Glass Ceiling The glass ceiling is a social barrier that makes it difficult for women to rise to the top level of management.

*Comparable Worth Refers to the equal dollar value of different jobs. It is established in gender-neutral terms by comparing jobs in terms of the education and experience needed to do them and the stress, responsibility, and working conditions associated with them.

*Affirmative Action Involves hiring a woman if equally qualified men and women are available for a job, thus compensating for past discrimination.

*Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) Computed by the United Nations Takes into account women’s share of administrative, managerial, professional, and technical jobs plus women’s earning power A score of 1.0 indicates equality with men on these three dimensions

*Countries with Highest Scores on Gender Empowerment Measure, 2004

Gender Equality seems to be a function of *GEM, continued Gender Equality seems to be a function of Economic Development AND/OR Government Policy

*Sexual Harassment Quid pro quo sexual harassment takes place when sexual threats or bribery are made a condition of employment decisions. Hostile-environment sexual harassment involves sexual jokes, comments, and touching that interfere with work or create an unfriendly work setting.

*Eliminating the Gender gap Among major reforms that could help eliminate the gender gap in earnings and reduce overall gender inequality are: Development of an affordable, accessible system of high-quality day care. Remuneration of men and women on the basis of their work’s actual worth.

*Feminism Liberal Feminism Socialist feminism Radical feminism

*Liberal Feminism Believe the main sources of women’s subordination are learned gender roles and the denial of opportunities to women. They advocate: nonsexist socialization and education sharing of domestic tasks extending the educational, employment, and political rights that men enjoy to women

*Socialist Feminists Regard women’s relationship to the economy as the main source of women’s disadvantages. Believe that only elimination of private property and economic equality can end the oppression of women. Once men possessed wealth they wanted to ensure property was transmitted to their sons.

*Radical Feminists Believe the very idea of gender must be changed to bring an end to male domination. Pornography, sexual harassment, restrictive contraception, rape, incest, sterilization, and physical assault must be eliminated for women to reconstruct their sexuality on their own terms.

*Attitudes To Women’s Issues, U.S. 1983–87 1996 1998 2002 Women suited for politics 63 78 77 Women’s rights issue one of the most important 58 64 — Think of self as a feminist 22

*Gender and Aggression Aggression not inherently a male trait From a sociological position, aggression is a learned trait Men are not all more aggressive than women

*Gender and Aggression When women become corporate lawyers or police officers or take other jobs that involve competition or threat, their production of the hormone testosterone is stimulated, causing them to act more aggressively Women are developing traits that were traditionally considered masculine (assertive, competitive, independent, and analytical)

*Distribution of Aggressiveness among Men and Women

*Male Aggression Against Women The majority of acts of aggression between men and women are committed by men against women. In 2003, 93,433 rapes of women were reported to the police in the United States.

*Male Aggression Against Women In a survey of acquaintance and date rape in American colleges, 7% of men admitted they attempted or committed rape in the past year. 11% percent of women said they were victims of attempted or successful rape.

*% of University Students Who Severely Assaulted a Dating Partner in the Past Year, by Country, 2001–05

*Question Do you agree or disagree There should be laws against the distribution of pornography whatever the age. There should be laws against the distribution of pornography to persons under 18. There should be no laws forbidding the distribution of pornography.

*GSS National Data:Pornography Age <30 30-49 50 and and up Yes: all ages 22.4% 32.2% 55.9% Yes: Under 18 73.3% 64.6% 39.4% No Laws 4.3% 3.1% 4.6%

*Body Dissatisfaction

*Influence of Fashion Models on Feelings about Appearance I always or often: Men Women Extremely Dissatisfied Compare myself to models in magazines 12 27 43 Carefully study the shape of models 19 28 47

*Influence of Fashion Models on Feelings about Appearance Very thin or muscular models make me: Men Women Extremely Dissatisfied Feel insecure about my weight 15 29 67 Want to lose weight 18 30

Quick Quiz

Which of the following is not a determinant of one's sex? whether one is born with male or female genitalia feelings and attitudes associated with being a man or a woman behaviors associated with being a man or a woman the feelings and attitudes associated with being a man or a woman, and the behaviors associated with being a man or a woman

Answer: d The feelings and attitudes associated with being a man or a woman, and the behaviors associated with being a man or a woman are not a determinant of one's sex.

2. Which of the following is not a criticism of essentialism? It ignores historical and cultural variability of gender and sexuality. It tends to generalize from the average, ignoring variations. It ignores the role of power. It ignores the way in which a host of gender differences in personality and behavior follows from anatomical sex differences.

Answer: d That “Essentialism ignores the way in which a host of gender differences in personality and behavior follows from anatomical sex differences” is not a criticism of Essentialism.

3. Social constructionism is a school of thought that sees gender differences: as a reflection of the different social positions occupied by women and men as a reflection of the different strategies men and women use to achieve reproductive success resulting from identification with, or a sense of belonging to, a particular sex as a reflection of biological differences between women and men

Answer: a Social constructionism is a school of thought that sees gender differences as a reflection of the different social positions occupied by women and men.

4. Sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists argue that male-female differences are rooted in: different reproductive strategies that women and men use to maximize the chance that their offspring will survive differences between men and women regarding physical strength anatomical differences between women and men hormonal differences between women and men

Answer: a Sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists argue that male-female differences are rooted in different reproductive strategies that women and men use to maximize the chance that their offspring will survive.

5. Surveys of body image show that: a great majority of people who are dissatisfied with their weight - both men and women - want to lose weight men are more concerned about their stomachs than women are women are more concerned about their breasts than men are about their chests all of these choices

Answer: a Surveys of body image show that a great majority of people who are dissatisfied with their weight - both men and women - want to lose weigh.

6. Transgendered people are: people who prefer sexual partners of both sexes people who identify with, and want to live fully as, members of the "opposite" sex, and who resort to medical intervention people who break society's gender norms by defying the rigid distinction between male and female people born with ambiguous genitals

Answer: c Transgendered people are people who break society's gender norms by defying the rigid distinction between male and female.

Men commit more frequent and more harmful acts of aggression against women than women commit against men because: men are physically stronger than women norms justify male aggression against women men have more social power than women b. and c. only

Answer: d Men commit more frequent and more harmful acts of aggression against women than women commit against men because norms justify male aggression against women and men have more social power than women.