The Transformation of Physical Education: 1900-1939 Chapter 10 Mechikoff & Estes, A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education, Fourth Edition © 2006, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Physical Education: 20th Century Reform Social development objectives Adoption of sports by physical education The development of play theory

19th Century Physical Education Early physical educators focused on health Backgrounds were doctors and educators Coursework in hygiene, physiology, and instruction in fitness activities Activities included gymnastics and calisthenics

20th Century General Education Physical education: valued part of curriculum Social development objectives emphasized Transformation: began with “athletics are educational” movement (1906-1916) Concluded with “sports for all” (1917-1939) Traditional health and fitness objectives subjugated to social development objectives Result of external forces more than philosophical reorientation

External Forces Physical educators capitalized on sports Reformed philosophy in to accommodate sports Determined effort by APEA Put athletics into education, education into athletics Athletic competition and intramural sports challenged gymnastics and calisthenics By 1930: most instructional activities devoted to sports and intramural programs

Harvard-Princeton Football Game, 1913 Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C. Harvard-Princeton Football Game, 1913

Physical Education and Athletic Changes Before 1906 physical education taught by faculty Athletics governed by athletic associations Controlled by students and alumni No national governing body to oversee athletics Abuses caused faculty intervention High school: control achieved by merging athletics and physical education Athletic directors and coaches hired

Physical Education and Coaching Teaching done by coaches Shift away from health focus Teachers trained by educators, not health experts Most physical educators women Men preferred coaching 1900-1920: no coursework offered in coaching 1919: George Huff developed first degree program in coaching (University of Illinois)

Merging of Athletics and Physical Education Varsity athletic competition dominates physical education 1906-1916: college presidents assumed responsibility for athletic programs 1917-1939: “Sports for All” Final stage in transformation of physical education National organizations charged with increasing sports participation

Athletics, Physical Education, and Crisis Most states passed legislation mandating physical education in schools College physical education departments established rapidly Few physical education professors Coaches became physical educators 1929 survey: 23 had formal training in physical education Most had been successful athletes or coaches

Athletics, Physical Education, and Crisis Qualified physical educators were concerned with low standards Jesse Feiring Williams Sport and physical education became permanently tied together Educators still argued over emphasis Still confused about their educational missions

Development of Play Theory Herbert Spencer Play as expending excess energy Karl Groos Humans played as preparation for life Play behavior was instinctual G. Stanley Hall Influential psychologist early 20th century Childhood as rehearsal for the evolution Play is fundamental to development of species

Play Theory Luther Gulick: influential physical educator Emphasized benefits of play for development of private and social self John Dewey: influential philosopher and educational theorist Believed that mind/body were integrated

Play Theory: Dewey Body produced experiences that shaped individual Play: important activity in educational process Ultimate goal of Dewey’s system: education for democratic citizenship Dewey and others helped introduce social games and social play as significant Physical education incorporated these ideas into educational programs

Play and Physical Education Play received support at the city level Playground movement began in large cities 1890s: Chicago, Boston, N.Y. Play theory received growing support Gymnastics, science-based programs preferred by many until 1910s By 1915: Play and sport became focus

Play in Physical Education, 1900–1915 Supporters argued for play over gymnastics Henry Curtis: team games developed group awareness, loyalty, and leadership Luther Gulick Used biological rationale to promote play Sports teach one to survive Sport activities arose because of a need to practice these skills

Summary of Play Developed health and vigor Character loyalty, sportsmanship, friendliness, leadership Democracy through group cooperation Moral and ethical values Educational because it is “instinctive”

Ball Game on School Playground, 1910 Girl’s Dodge Ball Game on School Playground, 1910 Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C. Ball Game on School Playground, 1910

The New Physical Education: 1915–1930 Physical education incorporated new theories of psychology and other sciences Behavioristic and psychosocial objectives/ideas Three individuals especially important: Clark Hetherington Thomas D. Wood Rosalind Cassidy

Clark Hetherington Divided physical education into four areas (1910) Organic, psychomotor, character, intellect Four areas blended to produce five objectives Physical training Social adjustment Response powers (early motor learning theory) Character development Improve thinking (cognition)

Clark Hetherington Argued for educational and social objectives over health objectives Successfully argued that physical education is essential for education Most physical educators eventually embrace play, games, dance, and sport

Quantification of Physical Education Measurement of motor ability and physical efficiency Attempts to link physical ability and mental ability Assessment of physical fitness