Courtesy of Constantine Sedikides

“... it is a mistake to consider the processes in social psychology as basic in the natural science sense. Rather, they may largely be considered the psychological counterpart of cultural norms.” Gergen, 1973

INHERENT PROBLEMS Research on Culture: < Did not define or operationalise the construct well < Compared countries rather than cultures < Used limited methodological repertoire < Was plagued by measurement equivalency problems < Hence : Could not explain adequately between-culture differences

BREAKTHROUGH Focus on a particular dimension of culture as experienced subjectively by members Dimension Individualism - Collectivism (Hofstede, 1980; Triandis, 1990) Theory of Independent vs. Interdependent Self-Construals (Markus & Kitayama, 1991)

THEORY OF INDEPENDENT VS. INTERDEPENDENT SELF-CONSTRUALS Assumptions: T Culture influences individual self-construals T Self-construals influence individual functioning

WESTERN EASTERN CULTURE USA JAPAN UK INDIA CANADA CHINA AUSTRALIA PHILIPINNES GERMANY INDONESIA

WEST “The squeaky wheel gets the grease.” EAST “The nail that stands out gets pounded down.”

WESTERN CORPORATION, SEEKING TO ELEVATE PRODUCTIVITY Look in the mirror and say “I am beautiful” 100 times before coming to work each day. EASTERN CORPORATION, SEEKING TO ELEVATE PRODUCTIVITY Begin your day by holding hands and telling each other that “he or she is beautiful.”

Propositions Western culture fosters independent self-construals Imperative = Individualistic be: independent, unique, separate Eastern culture fosters interdependent self-construals Imperative = Collectivistic value: cooperation, harmony, cohesion

Empirical Evidence Members of Western culture ( Idiocentrics ): have inflated views of the self manifest the self-serving bias have unrealistically optimistic beliefs

Empirical Evidence Members of Eastern culture ( Allocentrics ): do not have inflated self-views do not manifest the self-serving bias do not have unrealistically optimistic beliefs self-efface

Conclusions Enhancement of individual self is not observed in Eastern culture Allocentrics (Japanese) do not have a need for self-esteem Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999, Psychological Review

A REFORMULATION

Culture Perspective Need for Self-Enhancement: Highly prevalent in the West Non-Existent in the East

Culture Perspective Need for Self-Enhancement: Not Universal “the empirical literature provides scant evidence for a need for positive self-regard among Japanese…” “the need for self-regard must be culturally variant …” “the need for self-regard … is not universal, but rather rooted in significant aspects of North American culture ” Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1998, Psychological Review, p. 766

When Constraints are Lifted What happens when contextual or cultural constraints are lifted (or substantially reduced)? The case of Implicit Measures: Do Easterners NOT self-enhance on implicit measures?

Counter-Evidence for Culture Perspective: Implicit Measures Easterners – prefer own name letters and birthday dates – display strong self-positivity bias in response latency or word stem completion tasks – score equally high with westerners on self- esteem IAT

Conclusions Allocentrics have a positive implicit self But, how about explicit measures? Why do Japanese not show self- enhancement on explicit measures?

“One of the necessary conditions for the formulation of universal theories and laws … is that they be phrased in sufficiently abstract form as to allow for the insertion of specific objects, cases, places, events, and times as variables.” - Schlenker, 1974

Self-Concept Enhancing Tactician Model Universal Laws: People have a fundamental need to enhance the individual self to think positively of the self to protect the self People enhance the individual self on personally important attributes

Reformulation Need for Self-Enhancement: Equally prevalent in West and East

Lingering Questions Why do allocentrics (Japanese) and idiocentrics (Americans) differ on explicit measures of self-enhancement? Do Japanese and Americans enhance the self in different ways?

Self-enhancement is tactical and opportunistic People are skilled in recognising cultural norms or roles People strive to fulfil these roles People rate themselves positively on dimensions that imply successful role fulfilment; these dimensions are personally important Self-Concept Enhancing Tactician Model

Assumptions – Allocentrics (Japanese) personally value collectivistic attributes – Idiocentrics (Americans) personally value individualistic attributes

Predictions – Japanese will enhance the individual self on collectivistic attributes – Americans will enhance the individual self on individualistic attributes

The Data

Collectivistic Behaviours

Individualistic Behaviours

Collectivistic Traits

Individualistic Traits

Participants - 40 American students - 40 Japanese students Had been away from Japan 2-22 months

Procedure Cultural immersion (10 min) - imagine, write walking along the streets experiencing the sights, listening to the sounds eating in restaurants being with friends, celebrating with family Simulation of group-ness (10 min) - imagine, write membership in 16-person business task-force problems: budgetary,personnel, advertising, planning

Self-Enhancement on Behaviours “How likely are you, relative to the typical group member, to enact each behaviour?” -5 = much less than the typical group member 0 = about the same as the typical group member +5 = much more than the typical group member ( self superiority )

Positive values reflect self-enhancement Negative values reflect self-effacement

Self-Enhancement on Traits “How well does each trait describe you relative to the typical group member?” -5 = much worse than the typical group member 0 = as well as the typical group member +5 = much better than the typical group member

Positive values reflect self-enhancement Negative values reflect self-effacement

Assumptions Interdependents value collectivistic attributes Independents value individualistic attributes

Predictions Interdependents will self-enhance on collectivistic attributes ( personally important) Independents will self-enhance on individualistic attributes ( personally important)

Session I  206 participants  Singelis’ (1994) self-construal scale  Participants divided into – Interdependents high on interdependent items low on independent items – Independents high on independent items low on interdependent items

Session II  48 Independents 48 Interdependents  Procedure identical to Study I Exception : “How personally important is each …?” 1 = extremely unimportant to me 5 = neither important nor unimportant to me 9 = extremely important to me

Does Self-Construal Predict Behaviour Self-Enhancement?

Does Self-Construal Predict Trait Self-Enhancement?

Universal Laws : Humans have a need to enhance the self Humans enhance the self on personally important dimensions

Japanese or Interdependents value collectivistic attributes Americans or Independents value individualistic attributes

Japanese or Interdependents self-enhance on collectivistic attributes Americans or Independents self-enhance on individualistic attributes

Clarifications –For Japanese : Being a “good self” means being better than others on culturally-valued and, thus, personally-valued attributes –For Americans : Being a “good self” means being better than others on culturally-valued and, thus, personally-valued attributes – Both strive to excel on culturally-prescribed or desirable dimensions – Personal importance: a proxy for desirability