AP Psychology

1. Psychological studies almost always come to conclusions that affirm human intuition. 2. Psychological studies almost always come to firm conclusions that are rarely, if ever, challenged. 3. A psychologist needs to understand statistical analysis. 4. Psychological studies are always based on self-reported phenomenon like surveys and interviews. 5. Psychological studies always measure only observable behavioral outcomes. 6. Psychological studies can involve measurable phenomenon 7. Psychological studies can only involve human subjects. 8. Correlation proves causation. 9. Psychologists are encouraged to design experiments to test their theories. 10. Psychological observation is always accurate because it always involves precise measurement with medical equipment.

Scientific theory EXPLAINS through an integrated set of PRINCIPLES that ORGANIZES and PREDICTS observable behaviors or events. Combines discrete facts to simplify Estimated 3000 known facts about human behavior (Newell 1988) Playing connect the dots (Morton 1994) Theory Building Develop hypotheses: testable predictions Need to define variables How will each variable be measured How will each hypothesis be tested The null hypothesis Research Observations Measurable Repeatable Confirm or refute hypotheses Generate or refine theories

Study of one or more individuals in great depth in the hope of revealing universal truths Oldest method of psychological study From whom have we learned? Phineas Gage Chimpanzee Language Studies Scholars who used case studies Sigmund Freud Jean Piaget

Benefits Depth of information Level of interest in abnormal cases Recognition that every case is unique May suggest fruitful ideas Limitations Small-N problem Must create distinct incidences within one case study in order to overcome problem of small number of samples Number of discrete observations Number of discrete instances Cannot compute statistical or statistics have little meaning Lack of generalizability Anecdotal counter-evidence Smoking takes years off your life Dreams predict the future (Polly Klaas story)

1. How is the scientific method related to psychological study? 2. How is the word “theory” used in psychology? 3. How is this different than its usage in common language? 4. What is a case study? 5. Why might one choose to conduct a case study?

Many cases, less depth Self-reported answers Many different types and responses

Wording Effects Connotation Positive, negative, or neutral Lacayo (1995) “forbidden” vs. “not allowed” “more restrictions” (66%) vs. “government censorship” (27%) Sampling (There are AP Test Questions on this always) False consensus effect (Ross, et al 1977) “everyone is doing it” Bias toward ones’ own perception Representative sample (BE CLEAR!) Population: the whole group you want to describe Sample: the people you actually poll This sample should statistically look like the whole Gender, age, income, race, etc Method of controlling for confounding variables that may be demographic Random Sample: one in which every person in the population has a chance of participation

Shere Hite Women and Love 4.5% survey response out of 100,000 surveys sent to members of women’s organizations 70% having affairs 95% emotionally harassed Time published findings (for obvious reasons) Peplau and Gordon (1985) 50% + Happy or Very Happy 3% not happy at all 1 in 7 having affairs Watch out for bad samples Resist overgeneralizing (this includes internet reviews!)

Words…words…words Connotation Tone of voice of reader Font, color, etc. Overconfidence of the respondent People pleasing tendencies of the respondent Lack of knowledge on the basis of the respondent Problems with self-reporting Self-analysis can change the answer Opinions can change, especially if they are not strongly held LYING People who choose to take surveys Mail in Phone (time of day?) Internet Magazine readership

Simply observing behavior in a specific setting or under specific conditions Meant to describe, but cannot be used to explain or predict Researcher does not interact Examples Chimps and baboons lie (Whiten and Byrne 1988) North Americans, Scandinavians, and British prefer more personal space than do Latin Americans, Arabs, and the French. (Sommer 1969)

Exit ticket Describe a study for which you would want to use case study, survey, or naturalistic observation methods. Why did you choose the method you did? How is that method the best method for your particular question? Homework: Define each of the following and give an example of each. Theory Hypothesis Replication Case study Survey False consensus effect Population Random sample Representative sample Naturalistic observation