Policing Football Fans in Europe Case studies of the Euro 2000 and Euro 2004 football championships Prof. Dr. Otto M.J. Adang

Adang (1990): Study into initiation and escalation of riots In the Netherlands and during Euro ‘88 (Germany) Systematic and structured observations Over 700 observation hours (around 71 football matches and 139 protest events) Quantitative analysis

Ethological observations Direct recording of observations Limited number of well-defined behavioural categories Focus on interaction Focal group Comparative approach

Research questions What happens: who uses violence, how many, what type of violence, against whom, under what circumstances, what response? What factors influence the initiation and escalation of violence?

Main conclusions initiation of violence: –“frictions” –“young male syndrome” escalation of violence: –ingroup/ outgroup mechanisms –opportunity/ perception of risk normal social mechanisms are operating, but influence of alcohol and drugs

Police can do a lot to prevent violence, but little to stop it need to differentiate need to communicate need to observe need for focused, timely interventions

A “test”: Adang & Cuvelier, 2001

8 Amsterdam Rotterdam Arnhem Eindhoven Brussel Luik Charleroi Brugge

Stated policy: police tactics non-confrontational: preventive rather than repressive small units, easily approachable, actively contacting fans early and focused interventions riot squads out of sight

Stated policy: police behavioural profile Police officers: –are service oriented, respectful of other cultures/ nationalities and unbiased –are aware of the importance of information –act within policy, without prejudice –act justly and strictly in a friendly and firm way

Data collection International monitoring team (all host cities) –questionnaire (individually) –summary of team observations Foreign spotters’ teams –questionnaire (individually) –exit interview with teams Observation team in each host city –systematic observations –qualitative diaries

Results: two clusters, differing especially in: primarily fullfilled preventive role treated visitors as guests were easily approachable by fans switched flexibly clearly stated limits of tolerance

Public order management during Euro 2004: explicit choice for low profile approach Adang & Stott

Data collection Euro 2004 Matches of England, Germany, Netherlands, Portugal [and Albufeira] Interviews with police and fans International monitoring team Observation teams (4 * 4) –in host cities: match days and preceding night –samples every 15 min, in between qualitative

7 matches increased risk: 997 samples (England, Germany) 7 matches normal risk: 899 samples (Netherlands, Portugal) Albufeira

Note Extensive use of plainclothes officers Intervention units out of sight but close Observations of potential incidents Presence of “hooligans”

Conclusions Police strategy and tactics (low profile approach) succesful and contributed to: –Development of common football/ “euro 2004” identity –Empowerment of non-violence (self-policing among fans) Contribution of international police cooperation –banning orders –community policing approach to international cooperation

International police cooperation: differences in approaches CRIMINAL INTELLIGENCE/ INVESTIGATION APPROACH Focus on deterrence and punishment Covert (no interaction with fans) Indirectly influencing fan behaviour Focus on individuals/ prominents COMMUNITY POLICING APPROACH Focus on public order management Open (interaction with fans) Directly influencing fan behaviour Focus on behaviour

Foreign police at work (Braga)

Strategic principles “balance” between risk and deployment dynamic assessment of risk proactive communication facilitation within limits differentiation

Trends in public order policing from riot control to public order management increased international cooperation more knowledge-based –more systematic evaluations –search for good practice (what works) –practice and training more informed by more practically useful research