Macroeconomics: The Big Picture THIRD EDITIONECONOMICS and MACROECONOMICS MACROECONOMICS Paul Krugman | Robin Wells محمد باقر اسماعيلي مشاور استراتژي و.

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Macroeconomics: The Big Picture THIRD EDITIONECONOMICS and MACROECONOMICS MACROECONOMICS Paul Krugman | Robin Wells محمد باقر اسماعيلي مشاور استراتژي و اقتصاد بنگاه

Macroeconomics اقتصاد كلان رفتار كل اقتصاد را بررسي مي نمايد ( بدين مفهوم كه چگونه اقدامات همه افراد و شركتها براي توليد سطح خاصي از عملكرد اقتصادي بعنوان يك كل با هم در تعاملند )  مثال : سطح كلي قيمتها در اقتصاد بجاي قيمت يك كالا يا خدمت خاص.

بزرگترين اقتصادهاي دنيا

Macroeconomics: Theory and Policy در يک اقتصاد خود تنظيم self-regulating economy ، مسائلي نظير بيکاري بدون مداخله دولت، از طريق دست هاي نامرئي حل مي شود. بر حسب مدل اقتصاد کينزي Keynesian economics رکود از طريق مخارج ناکافي اتفاق افتاده و از طريق مداخله دولت مي توان آنرا حل نمود. سياست پولي Monetary policy براي تغيير در حجم پول با استفاده از اصلاح نمودن نرخ هاي بهره و اثر بر روي کل مخارج بکار برده مي شود. سياست مالي Fiscal policy براي تغييرات در مخارج و ماليات دولت که بر کل مخارج اثر مي گذارد بکار برده مي شود.

The Business Cycle چرخه تجاري  چرخه تجاري عبارتست از تناوب کوتاه مدت بين نزول اقتصادي (downturns) و رونق اقتصادي (upturns)  رکود ((Recessions شامل دوره اي از نزول اقتصادي بوده که بازده و اشتغال سقوط مي نمايد.  بحران (Depression) شامل نزول عميق و طولاني مدت مي باشد.

Growth, Interrupted,

7 Real GDP Time (year) peak trough ContractionExpansion Recession Depression Recovery Prosperity Expansion The Business Cycle A business cycle

The U.S. Unemployment Rate

Taming the Business Cycle رام کردن چرخه هاي تجاري تلاشهايي که براي کاهش شدت رکود مورد استفاده قرار مي گيرد سياست تثبيت stabilization policy ناميده مي شود. يکي از انواع سياستهاي تثبيت، سياست پولي monetary policy مي باشد : تغيير در حجم پول يا نرخ بهره نوع دوم سياست تثبيت، سياست مالي fiscal policy مي باشد : تغيير در سياست يا مخارج دولت و يا هردو

Comparing Recessions

Long-Run Economic Growth رشد اقتصادي بلند مدت رشد اقتصادي پايدار Long-run economic growth شامل روند رو به بالاي بازده کل اقتصاد در طي زمان مي باشد يک اقتصاد فقط از طريق رشد پايدار مي تواند به بالا بردن استاندارد هاي زندگي شهروندان برسد. محور اصلي اقتصاد کلان چيزي است که به رشد اقتصادي پايدار مرتبط مي باشد.

Long Run Growth in U.S.

Accounting for Growth: The Aggregate Production Function تابع توليد كل aggregate production function يك تابع مفروض مي باشد كه نشان دهنده وابستگي بهره وري به مقادير سرمايه فيزيكي، سرمايه انساني و همچنين وضعيت تكنولوژي مي باشد.

Physical Capital and Productivity $60,000 50,000 30,000 0 Real GDP per worker $20,000 50,000 80,000 Physical capital per worker (2005 dollars) 1. The increase in real GDP per worker becomes smaller as physical capital per worker rises. A B C Productivity

Technological Progress and Productivity Growth $120,000 90,000 60,000 30,000 0 Real GDP per worker (constant dollars) $20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 Physical capital per worker (constant dollars) Rising total factor productivity shifts curve up Productivity using 2010 technology Productivity using 1940 technology

Inflation and Deflation تورم و ضد تورم بالا رفتن سطح کل قيمتها را تورم inflation گويند. پايين آمدن سطح کل قيمت را ضد تورم deflation گويند. تغيير ساليانه در سطح قيمت کل را نرخ تورم inflation rate گويند. زماني که سطح کل قيمت به آرامي تغيير مي نمايد اقتصاد داراي پايداري price stability مي باشد.

Inflation and Deflation

International Imbalances عدم توازن بين المللي اقتصاد آزاد open economy اقتصادي است که کالاها و خدمات را با دنيا معامله مي نمايد. زماني که يك كشور ارزش مجموع کالاها و خدماتي را که از خارجي ها مي خرد بالاتراز مجموع ارزش کالاها و خدماتي باشد که به آنها مي فروشد با کسري تجاري trade deficit روبرو مي شود. با زماني که يك كشور ارزش مجموع کالاها و خدماتي را که از خارجي ها مي خرد پايينتراز مجموع ارزش کالاها و خدماتي باشد که به آنها مي فروشد مازاد تجاري trade surplus روبرو مي شود.

International Imbalances Exports, imports (billions) $2,500 2,000 1,500 1, United States Germany China Saudi Arabia ExportsImports

Trade Reciprocity

GDP and the CPI: Tracking the Macroeconomy THIRD EDITIONECONOMICS and MACROECONOMICS MACROECONOMICS Paul Krugman | Robin Wells محمد باقر اسماعيلي مشاور استراتژي و اقتصاد بنگاه

An Expanded Circular-Flow Diagram Government Firms Markets for goods and services Financial Markets Households Factor Markets Rest of the world Government purchases of goods and services Government borrowing Private savings Government transfers Wages, profit, interest, rent Borrowing and stock issues by firms Foreign borrowing and sales of stock Foreign lending and purchases of stock Exports Imports GDP Taxes Consumer spending Investment

The National Accounts حسابهاي ملي تقريبا همه کشورها مجموعه اي از حسابها را که به نام درآمد ملي national income و حسابهاي محصول product accounts ناميده مي شود را نگه مي دارند. درآمد ملي و حسابهاي محصول و حسابهاي ملي جريانهاي پول را بين بخشهاي متفاوت اقتصاد پيگيري مي نمايد. خانوارها در بازار عوامل دستمزد wages ، بهره اوراق قرضه bonds ، سود سهام dividends on stocks و اجاره زمين rent را بدست مي آورند. سهام stock بخشي از مالکيت شرکت مي باشد که توسط سهامدار نگهداري مي شود. اوراق قرضه bond اسناد قرضي مي باشند که در آن قرض گيرنده پرداخت کننده بهره مي باشد.

The National Accounts حسابهاي ملي بعلاوه، خانوارها سند انتقال government transfers را از دولت دريافت مي کنند. درآمد قابل تصرف Disposable income ، کل درآمد خانوار منهاي ماليات، براي مصرف يا پس انداز در دسترس مي باشد. پس انداز شخصي Private savings ، برابر است با درآمد منهاي مخارج، درآمد قابل تصرفي است که در مصرف خرج نمي شود. بانکداري ، بازار سهام و اوراق قرضه، استقراض دولت، استقراض خارجي بعنوان بازار هاي مالي financial markets شناخته مي شوند. دولت کالاها و خدمات را از طريق ماليات ها و همينطور از طريق استقراض دولتي مي خرد. (G) صادرات Exports (X) جريان سرمايه را به درون کشور از ديگر نقاط ايجاد مي نمايد در حاليکه واردات imports (IM) منجر به خروج سرمايه به ديگر نقاط دنيا مي گردد.

Gross Domestic Product توليد ناخالص داخلي توليد ناخالص داخلي Gross domestic product or GDP ارزش کليه کالاها و خدمات توليد شده در يک اقتصاد را در طي يک سال اندازه گيري مي نمايد. و اين شامل کالاي واسطه اي نيست. مخارج کل Aggregate spending ، مجموع مخارج مصرف کنندگان، مخارج سرمايه اي دولت که کالاها و خدمات را خريداري مي نمايد، صادرات منهاي واردات کل، کل مخارج براي توليد کالاها و خدمات در داخل در يک اقتصاد، مخارج کل را شکل مي دهند. توليد ناخالص داخلي GDP را مي توان به سه روش محاسبه نمود :  محاسبه ارزش افزوده value added به همه رويه ها  محاسبه همه مخارج براي همه کالاها و خدمات نهايي توليد شده در اقتصاد. GDP = C + I + G + X – IM  محاسبه همه درآمدهاي پرداخت شده به عوامل توليد

Calculating Gross Domestic Product محاسبه توليد ناخالص داخلي

Calculating Gross Domestic Product $15,000 10,000 5, ,000 Value added by government = 12.5% Value added by households = 12.7% Value added by business = 74.9% Consumer spending = 70.5% Investment spending = 12.4% Government purchases of goods and services = 20.7% Components of GDP (billions of dollars) C + I + G = $14,527 Net exports X – IM = –$517 (–3.6%) Spending on domestically produced final goods and services Value added by sector

Real vs. Nominal GDP توليد ناخالص داخلي اسمي در مقابل واقعي توليد ناخالص داخلي واقعي Real GDP ارزش کليه کالاها و خدمات توليد شده در يک اقتصاد را در طي يک سال اندازه گيري مي نمايد، از طريق قيمت هاي يک سال پايه محاسبه مي شود توليد ناخالص داخلي اسمي Nominal GDP ارزش کليه کالاها و خدمات توليد شده در يک اقتصاد را در طي يک سال اندازه گيري مي نمايد، از طريق قيمت هاي جاري همان سال که بازده توليد شده است، محاسبه مي شود

Real versus Nominal GDP Calculating GDP and Real GDP in a Simple Economy

Real versus Nominal GDP Nominal versus Real GDP in 1995, 2005, and 2010

Real versus Nominal GDP

Price Indexes and the Aggregate Price Level شاخص قيمت کل aggregate price level سطح کلي قيمت در اقتصاد را اندازه گيري مي نمايد. براي اندازه گيري سطح قيمت کل، اقتصاددانان هزينه خريد يک سبد مصرفي بازار market basket را اندازه گيري مي نمايند. شاخص قيمت price index نسبت هزينه هاي سبد بازار جاري به هزينه در سال پايه ، ضربدر 100 مي باشد.

Market Baskets and Price Indexes Pre-frostPost-frost Price of orange$0.20$0.40 Price of grapefruit Price of lemon Cost of market basket(200 × $0.20) +(200 × $0.40) + (200 oranges, 50 grapefruit,(50 × $0.60) +(50 × $1.00) lemons)(100 × $0.25) = $95.00(100 × $0.45) = $ Calculating GDP and Real GDP in a Simple Economy

Inflation Rate, CPI, and other Indexes عبارتست از درصد تغيير سالانه در شاخص قيمت، عموما بر مبناي شاخص قيمت مصرف کننده Consumer Price Index, or CPI ، که عمومي ترين معيار اندازه گيري سطح قيمت کل مي باشد. شاخص قيمت مصرف کننده consumer price index, or CPI ، هزينه سبد بازار يک خانوار متوسط شهري را اندازه گيري مي نمايد.

Consumer Price Index

U.S. CPI Trend

Other Price Measures ساير معيارهاي اندازه گيري يک شاخص مشابه با شاخص بهاي مصرف کننده شاخص قيمت توليد کننده producer price index مي باشد. اقتصاد دانان همچنين براي کاهش اثر قيمتي بر روي توليد ناخالص داخلي ، از توليد ناخالص داخلي کاهش قيمت يافته GDP deflator استفاده مي کنند که سطح قيمت را از طريق محاسبه نسبت توليد ناخالص داخلي اسمي به واقعي اندازه گيري مي نمايد.

Measures of Inflation: Trend

Savings, Investment Spending, and the Financial System THIRD EDITIONECONOMICS and MACROECONOMICS MACROECONOMICS Paul Krugman | Robin Wells

The Savings–Investment Spending Identity In a simplified economy: GDP = C + I + G SPrivate = GDP + TR − T − C SGovernment = T − TR − G NS = SPrivate + SGovernment = (GDP + TR − T − C) + (T − TR − G) = GDP − C − G Hence, I = NS. Investment spending = National savings in a closed economy. Investment spending = National savings + Capital inflow in an open economy I = SPrivate + SGovernment + (IM − X) = NS + KI

Budget deficit The Savings–Investment Spending Identity Share of GDP 25% –5 –10 –15 Investment spending Savings Capital inflows Private savings Share of GDP 25% –5 –10 –15 Investment spending Savings Private savings Budget deficit Capital outflows (a) United States, 2007(b) Japan, 2007

The Market for Loanable Funds نرخ بازده rate of return يك پروژه سود حاصله براي يك پروژه مي باشد كه بصورت نسبت بيان مي شود.

$ % A Interest rate Demand for loanable funds, D Quantity of loanable funds (billions of dollars) B The Demand for Loanable Funds

$ X Quantity of loanable funds (billions of dollars) Interest rate Supply of loanable funds, S % Y The Supply for Loanable Funds

Equilibrium in the Loanable Funds Market Interest rate 12% $300 Quantity of loanable funds (billions of dollars) Offers not accepted from lenders who demand interest rate of more than 8%. Projects with rate of return less than 8% are not funded. Projects with rate of return 8% or greater are funded. Offers accepted from lenders willing to lend at interest rate of 8% or less. r* Q*

S D 1 r 1 r 2... leads to a rise in the equilibrium interest rate. Interest rate Quantity of loanable funds An increase in the demand for loanable funds... D 2 An Increase in the Demand for Loanable Funds

D S 1 r 1 Interest rate Quantity of loanable funds An increase in the supply for loanable funds... S 2 r 2... leads to a fall in the equilibrium interest rate. An Increase in the Supply of Loanable Funds

Income and Expenditure THIRD EDITIONECONOMICS and MACROECONOMICS MACROECONOMICS Paul Krugman | Robin Wells

The Multiplier: An Informal Introduction ميل نهايي به مصرف MPC عبارتست از افزابش مخارج مصرف كننده زماني كه درآمد قابل تصرف يك دلار افزايش يابد. ميل نهايي به پس انداز MPS عبارتست از افزايش پس انداز خانوار زماني كه درآمد قابل تصرف يك دلار افزايش يابد.

The Multiplier: An Informal Introduction So the $100 billion increase in investment spending sets off a chain reaction in the economy. The net result of this chain reaction is that a $100 billion increase in investment spending leads to a change in real GDP that is a multiple of the size of that initial change in spending. How large is this multiple?

The Multiplier: Numerical Example Rounds of Increases of Real GDP when MPC = 0.6

Consumer Spending تابع مصرف The consumption function معادله اي است كه مخارج مصرفي فردي را در مقابل درآمد قابل تصرف مختلف نشان مي دهد.

The Consumption Function

Aggregate Consumption Function تابع مصرف كل The aggregate consumption function روابط در اقتصاد را بصورت يك كل بين درآمد كل قابل تصرف جاري و مخارج كل مصرف كننده مي باشد.

Aggregate Consumption Function The aggregate consumption function shifts in response to changes in expected future income and changes in aggregate wealth.

Aggregate Consumption Function

Investment Spending مخارج سرمايه گذاري برنامه ريزي شده Planned investment spending عبارتست از مخارج سرمايه گذاري كه كسب و كارها براي اينكه در يك دوره مفروض انجام دهند را برنامه ريزي مي نمايند.

Inventories and Unplanned Investment Spending مخارج سرمايه گذاري واقعي Actual investment spending شامل مجموع مخارج سرمايه گذاري برنامه ريزي شده و سرمايه گذاري در موجودي هاي برنامه ريزي نشده مي باشد.

Planned Aggregate Spending and GDP مخارج كل برنامه ريزي شده Planned aggregate spending شامل مقدار كل مخارج برنامه ريزي شده اقتصاد مي باشد. GDP = C + I YD = GDP C = A + MPC × YD AE Planned = C + I planned

AE Planned CF ,0002,500 3,500 3,0001,5001,000$ $4,000 3,000 2,500 2,000 4,000 AE Planned consumer spending (billions of dollars) Real GDP (billions of dollars) Planned aggregate spending is equal to consumer spending plus I planned, $500 billion. AE Planned = C + I Planned C = ×YD Planned Aggregate Spending and GDP

Income – Expenditure Equilibrium زماني كه بازده كلي اندازه گيره شده توسط توليد ناخالص داخلي با مخارج برنامه ريزي شده كل برابر باشد اقتصاد در تعادل درآمد - مخارج income– expenditure equilibrium مي باشد. Income–expenditure equilibrium GDP is the level of real GDP at which real GDP equals planned aggregate spending.

Y*Y* E 2,0002,500 3,500 3,000 1,500 1,000$ $4,000 3,000 2,000 1, ,000 1,400 Real GDP (billions of dollars) Planned aggregate spending, AE Planned (billions of dollars) I Unplanned is negative and GDP rises I Unplanned = –$400 I Unplanned is positive and GDP falls I Unplanned = $200 AE Planned = GDP AE Planned = C + I Planned = A + MPC × GDP + I Planned AE Planned 45-degree line The Keynesian cross is a diagram that identifies income–expenditure equilibrium as the point where a planned aggregate spending line crosses the 45-degree line. Income – Expenditure Equilibrium

The Multiplier Process and Inventory Adjustment

Y 2 * E 2 AE Planned after autonomous change AE Planned 2 2,400 X I Unplanned = –$400 1,200 Autonomous increase of $400 in aggregate spending AE Planned $4,000 3,000 2,000 2,500 3,5004,0003,0001,5001,000$500 E 1 Y 1 * Planned aggregate spending, AE Planned (billions of dollars) Real GDP (billions of dollars) AE Planned before autonomous change ΔY* = Multiplier × ΔAAE Planned = 1 / (1 – MPC) × ΔAAE Planned The Multiplier

The Multiplier Process

The Paradox of Thrift

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