Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 4 Gender Inequality This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; Any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Defining Sex and Gender Sex Biological differences between males and females  Primary sex characteristics: reproductive process  Secondary sex characteristics: identify a person’s sex Gender Culturally and socially constructed differences Based on group or societal meanings, beliefs, and practices. “Femininity” and “masculinity”

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Gendered Belief System Gendered division of labor  Productive tasks are separated by gender  Women’s work?  Men’s work? Cross cultural research  Social factors, not biological ones, explain gendered division of labor

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Gender Inequality and Socialization Socializing agents include Parents: Treatment, clothes, toys, or chores Peer groups: Pressure for behavior and emotions Education:  Gender bias: favoritism toward one gender  Sexual harassment: unwanted sexual advances Name calling, touching, sexist jokes “Boys will be boys” attitude by teachers

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Gender Inequality and Socialization, Cont’d. Socializing agents include Sports:  Title IX (1972): equal opportunities for boys and girls in boy academic and athletic programs Media:  TV, films, newspapers, magazines perpetuate stereotypes  Advertisement reinforces ideas about women and physical attractiveness

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Structural Agents and Gender Inequality Patriarchy: A hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by men  Institutionalized sexism Gender-segregated work: Different occupations and places of work Pink-collar occupations: Low-paying, non- manual, semi-skilled Contingent work: Part-time, temporary, no benefits

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 TABLE 4.1: Employment Percentages by Occupation and Sex, 2003 OccupationMenWomen Total Percentage Managerial and professional specialty Sales and office occupations Service occupations Production, transportation, and material moving occupations Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations *Percentages might not add up to 100 because of rounding Source: calculated by Author based on U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2004.

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Consequences of Gender- Segregated Work Wage gap: The disparity between women’s and men’s earnings Median earnings, 2005  Men: $713  Women: $580 Women make 81 cents to every one dollar a man makes For pay equity to occur, we need a commitment to comparable worth based on: Education, training, required skills Responsibility for others’ work Working conditions Figure 4.1: The U.S. Wage Gap: Women’s Earnings Compared with Men’s Earnings, Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2004.

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Figure 4.2: U.S. Wage Gap in Selected Occupations Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2004.

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Consequences of Gender- Segregated Work, Cont’d. Sexual Harassment: Intentional, institutionalized gender discrimination Includes all unwelcome sexual attention  About abuse of power, not attraction Glass Ceiling: Invisible barrier constructed by male management Prevents women from reaching top positions

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Second Shift (Hochschild, 1989) Women as wage earners and unpaid household workers. Women do most of the daily chores.  Women do daily chores  Men do leisure chores Women are sandwiched between needs of children and older relatives.

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Perspectives on Gender Inequality Symbolic Interactionist Perspective Linguistic sexism Words and patterns of communication that ignore, devalue, or make a sex object of one sex or another, most often women  Words like chairman and mankind ignore women  Words like fox, bitch, babe, and doll devalue women Non-verbal communication—control of space by men

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Perspectives on Gender Inequality The Functionalist Perspective Women’s caregiver roles are crucial to society. Biological division of labor (Parsons, 1955) Men are more suited to instrumental tasks.  Goal oriented tasks Women perform expressive tasks.  Emotional oriented tasks Differences in human capital (diminishes with time off for child-bearing and childcare)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Perspectives on Gender Inequality Conflict Perspective Marxist Approach Gender inequality results from capitalism and private ownership of the means of production. Men gain control over property and women. Capitalism exploits women in the workplace and patriarchy at home.

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Perspectives on Gender Inequality Feminist Perspectives Radical: Men’s oppression of women is deliberately supported by media and religion Liberal: Inequality is rooted in gender-role socialization Black: Women of color face inequalities compounded by race, class, and gender

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Global Gender Inequality Physical and sexual abuse of girls and women Female infanticide reduces number of girls born Female genital mutilation Sex-selective abortion

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Reducing Gender Inequality Symbolic Interactionists : Redefine gender social realities Functionalist: Educate women how their decisions affect human capital Enforce existing anti- discrimination legislation, such as Title VII Conflict: Marxist: Abolish capitalism Social Feminists: Abolish capitalism and create a new economy Liberal Feminists: Change gender socialization Radical Feminists: Abolish patriarchy Black Feminists: Treat all women more equitably.