History of Forensic Science

Forensic Science Application of science to the criminal and civil laws that are enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice system

The first written account of using medicine and entomology to solve (separate) criminal cases 1235: Sung Tzu solved a murder by instructing all suspects to bring their sickles to one location. Flies, attracted by the smell of blood, eventually gathered on a single sickle. In light of this, the murderer confessed. The book also offered advice on how to distinguish between a drowning (water in the lungs) and strangulation (broken neck cartilage). Noticed no ashes in corpse, used pigs and set up experiment Yi Yu Ji (A collection of criminal cases)

1670 First powerful microscope created by Anton Van Leeuwenhoek

1784 Lancaster, England, John Toms was tried and convicted for murdering Edward Culshaw with a pistol. When the dead body of Culshaw was examined, a pistol wad (crushed paper used to secure powder and balls in the muzzle) found in his head wound matched perfectly with a torn newspaper found in Toms' pocket.

Father of toxicology 1814: Scientific paper on poison published by Matthieu Orfila of Spain the first person to systematise the study and classification of toxic substances when he found traces of poison in the liver of a dead dog. Father of Forensic Toxicology

Identification of remains (odontology and anthropometry) 1879: System of measuring people by body measurements developed by Alphonse Bertillon of France Known as Father of Criminal Identification Most accurate until 1900s when fingerprints are used

1850s-60s Crime photography was established Used to record criminals and crime scenes

Francis Henry Galton Father of forensic fingerprint identification 1892: Published Fingerprints, which is used in the present day

Calvin Goddard 1889: Bullets were matched to gun they were fired from, the start of ballistics

Sherlock Holmes Fictional character Author: Scottish author and physician Sir Arthur Conan Doyle Used forensics to solve crimes before police did Brought forensics to public

Fingerprinting (cont’d) 1902: First person was convicted on fingerprint evidence 1903: NYC police began fingerprint files of arrested persons

Who is the main suspect (s)? Someone was attacked yesterday. There was a 7.7cm sized bruise on the victim’s face. There were 24cm sized shoe prints spaced 38cm apart. Who is your main suspect?

1905 Theodore Roosevelt establishes FBI

Albert S. Osborn 1910 Established process for questioning authenticity of documents Wrote Questioned Documents Still used today

Hans Gross 1893 Publishes “Criminal Investigation” Discusses all parts of criminalistics Start of all forensic journals

1910 – Edmond Locard Med and law school background Convinced police department in england to give him two assistant and attic for forensic evidence analysis Started 1 st forensics lab Later started 1 st forensic university

Locard’s exchange principle When 2 objects come in contact with each other, a cross-transfer of materials occurs.

Leone Lattes 1915 Discovered the blood group of a dried blood stain

1923 First crime lab established in conjunction with LA police by August Vollmer

1930 FBI sets up national fingerprint file in US

1950 American Academy of Forensic Science (AAFS) founded in Chicago Also introduction of computer chromatography, electrophoresis, and spectrophotometry

1974 Electron microscopy of gunshot residue starts

1977 Automated Fingerprint Identification System of computer scans introduced in FBI

Walter C. McCrone Became the premier microscopist in forensics career Taught thousands his analytical study method

1981 FBI opens “Forensic Science Research and Training Center” Research new methods Train personnel

1984 Sir Alec Jeffreys develops DNA profiling tests 1986 – DNA used to convict Colin Pitchfork of 2 murders and establish innocence of another suspect.

1986 FBI starts databases on DNA, fingerprints, bullets, and shell casing

More emphasis on the evidence Constitutional right to counsel has limited confessions Satellites allow for sharing of information but NO national systems of forensics labs. Increase in drug crimes

1990s Increase in DNA technology Increase in drug analysis outways DNA cases FBI has largest crime lab in the world Drug Enforcement Administration labs Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms US Postal Inspection Service

Crime Labs Some states have state crime labs and work with local crime labs to share info and complete tests NYC has the largest crime lab in the state England and Canada have federal system of regional labs, that charge for services

Parts to a Crime Lab 1. Physical Science Unit Examine trace evidence back at lab, compare crime scene evidence, chemists, physicists, geologists

2. Biology Unit DNA profiling, compare wood and plants

3. Firearms Unit Detect residue, casings, shells, and firearms

4. Document Examination Unit Determine authenticity of documents

5. Photography Unit Photograph scene, use infrared, UV, x-rays

6. Toxicology Unit Bodily fluids and organs for drugs and poisons

7. Latent Fingerprint Unit Process and examine evidence of fingerprints

8. Polygraph Unit Determine authenticity of witness testimony

9. Voiceprint analysis Unit Tying the voice to the culprit

10. Crime-scene Investigation Unit Collect and preserve evidence to be processed

11. Forensic Psychiatry Human behavior to test competency, disorders and for criminal profiling

12. Forensic Odontology Dental evidence, bite marks

13. Forensic Engineering Accident reconstruction, cause and origin of fire/explosions

14. Forensic Computer and Digital Analysis Preserving digital information, cell phones, computers, etc.

15. Forensic Anthropology Using skeletal remains to identify information of victim

Scientific Method 1. Question: who committed the crime? 2. Hypothesis 3. Experimentation 4. If validated by experimentation, it becomes scientific evidence

What type of evidence is the strongest? Physical Eyewitness accounts and confessions can be misconstruded

Determining admissibility of evidence Must meet “Frye Standard”

1923 Frye vs. United States Evidence must widely accepted by the scientific community to be used at trial

1993 Daubert vs. Merrel Dow Pharmaceuticals Decided it was the judge’s decision to ensure that the testimony is based on evidence and proper techniques

Start of “Expert Testimony” Someone who possesses a skill or knowledge not expected of the average layperson. Must ensure the testimony is impartial so as not to minimize significance of the analysis.