 **Mode of Reproduction: The predominant pattern, in a culture, of population change through the combined effect of fertility and mortality.  Fertility: the rate of births within a population or the increase in population over a period of time.  Pronatalism: An attitude or policy that encourages childbearing.  Demographic transition: The change from the agricultural pattern of high fertility and mortality to the industrial pattern of low fertility and mortality.

ForagingAgricultureIndustrialism/Informatics Population growth Moderate Birth and death ratesHigh Birth rates Declining death rates Industrialized nations-negative population growth Developing nations- high Value of childrenValue of Children ModerateHighMixed Fertility Control Indirect means Low-fat diet of women Women’s work and exercise Prolonged breastfeeding Spontaneous abortion Direct means Induced abortion Infanticide Increased reliance on direct means Induced abortion Infanticide Pro-natalist techniques herbs Direct methods grounding in science and medicine Chemical forms of contraception In vitro fertilization Abortion Social Aspects Homogeneous fertility Few specialists Emerging Class differences Increasing specialization Midwifery/Herbalists Stratified fertility Globally, nationally, and locally Highly developed specialization

 An individual’s culture shapes their view(s) on topics of sex, gender, romantic relationships (marriage), sexual intercourse, contraception, birthing rites and sexual orientation.  Sexual intercourse usually involves private sometimes secret beliefs and behaviors. Anthropologically studying sexual behaviors and practices is challenging. Due in part (Participant observation would be unethical, surveys/interviews are the only ethical way to study sexual behavior/practices)  For females, biology interacting with environment and culture defines when a female is fertile. Biologically this begins with the onset Menarche and ceases with Menopause.  Cultures socialize their children to “adhere,” to an appropriate age for sexual intercourse however cultural rules are far more pliable than those of biological sex. Cultural guidelines vary by gender, class, ethnicity and ancestry.

Cross culturally, fertility decision making begins at the family level and the needs or costs of having children are weighed by the couple and members of the family. Important factors that influence the desire to have children… 1. children’s labor value 2. Children’s value as old-age support for parents 3. Infant and child mortality rates 4. Economic costs of children Depending on the division of labor and on the other social features of a cultural group preferences based on the sex of a child vary. Preferences for sons is widespread, especially in areas South and East Asia (India, Pakistan, China and Korea) but it is not universal. Areas of the Caribbean and Africa have a preference for daughters and in areas Southeast Asia a balanced representation of the sexes within a familial group is preferred.

 People throughout history have had ways to influence fertility-- whether it was to reduce it, increase it, or regulate birth rates/spacing.  Indigenous methods include:  Plant or animal substances  Herbs made into a Tea or taken in pill form  Some substances are made into an inhaled vapor, some Inserted into the vagina and others are rubbed onto the Stomach. Induced Abortion:  Is cross-culturally practiced and attitudes toward induced abortion vary from acceptable/ tolerated to opposition and punishment for offenders  Cross-culturally there are several methods employed to induce an abortion. Hitting the abdomen, starving oneself, taking drugs, jumping up and down, lifting heavy objects, jumping from a height or doing hard work.

 Reasoning behind why women seek to induce an abortion are normally tied to socio-economic factors.  Other factors that may influence the reason for an abortion and include…  Religious beliefs (Catholicism, Islam, and Hinduism)  Some governments regulate access to abortion (China, One child per couple policy ) In Japan, decorated statues are placed in a Mizuko in memory of their “returned” fetuses. (142)

 Is the deliberate killing of an infant or child. Practiced cross- culturally however it is rarely a frequent practice.  2 forms of infanticide  Direct and Indirect Direct Infanticide is the death of a infant or child through actions such as beating, smothering, poisoning and/or drowning. Indirect Infanticide is the death of an infant or child through typically neglect such as exposure, starvation, and allowing the child to get sick and die. Reasons for Direct Infanticide Child was deformed or ill Infant’s sex Adulterous conception

 Personality: is an individual’s patterned and characteristic way of behaving, thinking and feeling.  Enculturation: Also known as socialization, is the learning of a culture through both informal and formal processes.  The Birth Context  The cultural context of birth affects an infant’s psychological development. ( example Maya women of Oaxaca, Mexico.)  Bonding  Occurs between parent and infant in the initial months after birth.  Gender in Infancy  How an infant is treated while in the womb and after it is born. This is culturally driven.

 Socialization of children involves how children get along/observe others and what kind of responsibilities a child has (chores, tasks, care-taking, school and etc.)  Nurturant-responsible personalities  Caring and sharing acts towards other children  Dependent-dominant personalities  Fewer acts of caregiving, more acts of dominance over other children and more need for care by adults. The type of culture and livelihood a child is socialized in may affect what personality type they have.

 The transition from childhood to Adulthood involves certain biological and cultural factors. Puberty: is a time in the human life cycle That occurs universally and involves a Set of biological markers and sexual maturation. Adolescence: Is the cultural defined Period of maturation from puberty to the Attainment of adulthood.

 Is the existence within a culture of multiple categories of femininity, masculinity and blurred genders that are tolerated and legitimate.  **Cross cultural examples Berdache: A blurred gender category, usually referring to a person who is biologically male but who takes on a female gender role. ( Native America- Lakota-Sioux, Winkte/ Zuni, Berdache) Hijra: In India, A blurred gender role in which a person who is biologically male takes on female dress and behaviors. Amazon: A person who is biologically female but takes on a male gender role. ( Found in a variety of global cultures and environmental contexts.)

 Depending on the culture you are from one of the most important Rites of Passage is from childhood to adulthood.  After becoming an adult– individuals typically get married or embrace a spiritual vocation.  Becoming a parent:  Matrescence  Motherhood, or the cultural process of becoming a mother  Patrescence  Fatherhood, or the cultural process of becoming a father. Couvade: customs that apply to the behavior of fathers during and shortly after the birth of their children.