Ch15-2 Language Policy of the Han Sphere From A Chinese-character-based Cultural Circle 漢字文化圈 授課老師：蘇以文 I-wen Su 【本著作除另有註明外，採取創用 CC 「姓名標示－ 非商業性－相同方式分享」台灣 3.0 版授權釋出】 The “Work” under the Creative Commons Taiwan 3.0 License of “BY-NC-SA”.

The Han sphere All adopting Kanji and classical Han writing as the official written language before the 20 th century Vietnam Korea Japan Taiwan China Chiung, Wi-vun T. (2007) “Language, Literacy, and Nationalism: Taiwan's Orthographic transition from the perspective of Han Sphere.”

changes Vietnam: Chu Nom (derivative of Han characters) was adopted in the 20 th as official, replacing the romanized Chu Quoc Ngu (established1945) Korea: Han characters replaced by phonemic system Hangul after World War II Japan: Han characters decreased from thousands to 1945 frequently used ones by 1981 Chiung, Wi-vun T. (2007) “Language, Literacy, and Nationalism: Taiwan's Orthographic transition from the perspective of Han Sphere.”

Orthographic reform Internal factors: general public’s demand for literacy anti-feudal hierarchy External factors: Political relationships between these countries The origin of Han characters

Native language (including writing system) & national identity Pros- Vietnam & Korea Cons- Ireland and US

National identity: A Western View ‘nation-state’ – a concept formed by Publication Religious reform Mother tongue (Anderson 1991) E.g. Renaissance: national literature Anderson, Benedict.(1991) Imagined Communities. New York: Verso.

Imagined communities Benedict Anderson (1991) An imagined Hanji cultural community prompts the construction of nation-state in Chinese character-based circle Anderson, Benedict.(1991) Imagined Communities. New York: Verso.

Sense of Community via the Chinese/Han characters 漢字共同體 An imagined Hanji cultural community 中華民族 the Chinese people 中國國族 the China people Excluding minorities like Zhuang, Miao, Yao

Non-imagined Hanji cultural community Unique language Unique writing system Vietnam, Korea, Japan

Linguistic vs. political Writing system ╪ national identity Language vs. dialect Mutually intelligible (Crystal 1997), Swedish/Norwegian/Danish Crystal, D.(1997) The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language. 2nd edition.

Diglossia & digraphia Diglossia> (spoken) language digraphia> writing system (written lang)

diglossia Charles Ferguson (1959): Two varieties of the same language, carrying with each different social functions High language vs. low language Formal & literary vs. informal & colloquial Joshua Fishman (1967) Not necessarily of the same language Not necessarily limited to 2 languages Ferguson, Charles A.(1959) 'Diglossia', Fishman, Joshua.(1967) Bilingualism with and without diglossia; diglossia with and without bilingualism.

digraphia Dale (1980) Extending Ferguson’s idea of diglossia to the writing system De Francis (1984): same as Dale Chiung Wi-vun (2003) More than one writing systems in one society, each with different communicative functions Dale, I.R.H. (1980) “Digraphia”. DeFrancis, John. (1984) Digraphia. Chiung, Wi-vun T.(2003) Learning Efficiencies for Different Orthographies: A Comparative Study of Han Characters and Vietnamese Romanization.

How about the Han circle? Spoken Literary (wenyan) vs. colloquial (baihua) High language (emperor; puppet heroes) Low language (commoner; clown) Written High lang (writing in Han characters) Low lang (Chu-Nam of Vietnam; Kana of Japan)

High vs. Low Status may change Political Linguistic structures of the writing systems Kana (Japan) > high Romanization (Vietnam) > high Zhuang/miao/yao > still low

1 st vs. 2 nd languages 1 st lg = fluent lg? Personal mother tongue vs. ethnic language/national language Usually, one’s mother tongue = one’s ethnic/national lang, with the exception Immigration Studying abroad colonialism

Divergence and shift of the mother tongue Divergence 異化 Language shift 語言轉換 More and more divergence will lead to language shift Ireland: Irish as national language & English as the official language, though English is used Taiwan 平埔 ? > vernacular shift

Language and national identity Determined by its social context (Fishman 1999) There exists no causal relationship between the two Linguistic functions can be Strengthened: taking advantage of it Weakened: not taking advantage of it Fishman, Joshua. (ed.) (1999) Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity.

indigenization Change from immigrant society into native society Aboriginal tribes in Taiwan Han people has become indigenized Indigenization is the foundation of Taiwan languages, Taiwan lit and Taiwan (national) people

Copyright Declaration WorkLicensingAuthor/Source p.2, 3 Chiung, Wi-vun T. (2007) “Language, Literacy, and Nationalism: Taiwan's Orthographic transition from the perspective of Han Sphere.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 28(2), and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW p.6, 7 Anderson, Benedict.(1991) Imagined Communities. New York: Verso. and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW p.10 Crystal, D.(1997) The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language. 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press. and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW

Copyright Declaration WorkLicensingAuthor/Source p.12 Ferguson, Charles A.(1959) 'Diglossia', Word 15: and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW p.12 Fishman, Joshua.(1967) Bilingualism with and without diglossia; diglossia with and without bilingualism. Journal of Social Issues 32(2), and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW p.13 Dale, I.R.H. (1980) “Digraphia”. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 26, 5–13 and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW

Copyright Declaration WorkLicensingAuthor/Source p.13 DeFrancis, John. (1984) Digraphia. Word 35 (1), and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW p.13 Chiung, Wi-vun T.(2003) Learning Efficiencies for Different Orthographies: A Comparative Study of Han Characters and Vietnamese Romanization. PhD dissertation: Univ. of Texas at Arlington. and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW p.18 Fishman, Joshua. (ed.) (1999) Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW