Introduction to Research and the Scientific Method

What is research? We ask questions all the time Research is a formal way of going about asking questions Ways of acquiring knowledge Uses methodologies Many different kinds (e.g. market research, media research and social research) Basic research methods can be learned easily

Ways of acquiring knowledge/belief The method of tenacity: We know/believe because we know/believe. Knowledge/belief derives from and is validated by what we hold on to as our knowledge/belief. Just because …. The method of authority: Know/believe because authority (somebody or something with the right, power or special knowledge to say so) says so. Authority can be any combination of: Expertise , tradition/history, public sanction, religion, superstition The method of intuition: Knowledge is acquired/validated with reference to reason or intuition, otherwise called common sense. NON-SCIENTIFIC or PRE-SCIENTIFIC

Ways of acquiring knowledge? Weaknesses of non-scientific or pre-scientific approaches It is difficult, if not impossible to resolve conflicts Which does not facilitate progress. Knowledge derived tends to be space-specific, source-specific, time-bound, not universal, and highly perishable.

What is science? William Whewell's classification of the sciences from Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, 2nd 3dn. vol.2, 1847, p. 117.

What is science? Not every human knowledge is science Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") In its broadest sense Science is: any systematic knowledge-base or prescriptive practice that is capable of resulting in a prediction or predictable type of outcome. In this sense, science may refer to a highly skilled technique or practice Also Science is The concerted human effort to understand, or to understand better, the history of the natural world and how the natural world works, with observable physical evidence as the basis of that understanding.

Science is a method A procedure to produce knowledge i.e. discovering uniformities/ principles, laws in this universe. Results are organized, systematized, and made part of the body of knowledge.

Knowledge Theories Empiricism Rationalism Knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience Central concept in science Rationalism Knowledge is intellectual and deductive Starting with basic principles all knowledge can be derived through deduction

Scientific Method The scientific method is popularly attributed to Galileo who, in 1590, dropped iron balls of two different weights off the Leaning Tower of Pizza.

Scientific Method Galileo Galilei Born: 15 February 1564 Died: 8 January 1642 Born in Pisa, Italy Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher improvements to the telescope

Scientific Method He wanted to test his hypothesis that the forces acting on a falling object were independent of the object's weight.

Scientific Method He was correct and so refuted the previously held belief that heavier objects would fall faster than light objects.

Scientific Method The steps he took: Process of “sensory experiences” observation, hypothesis generation, testing of the hypothesis and refutation or acceptance of the original hypothesis Process of “sensory experiences” Observation  Repetition  Re-observation. By repeating the observation researchers want to be definite/positive. This approach is called positivism

Scientific Method - Characteristics Produces/validates knowledge With reference to standards and procedures that are largely external to the individual, are more or less permanent Systematic and controlled method. Must follow a well-ordered, tightly disciplined procedure. Allows for replication. Insists on full disclosure and explicitness of procedures, the method Can therefore be repeated by others with a view to corroborating or refuting its findings. Empirical, grounded in observation and experience. Leads to the collection of evidence and the testing of such evidence. Largely focuses on what is, rather than what ought to be Seeks to validate knowledge from evidence Self-correcting and ‘provisional’ There is no “final solution” under this method. It is open- ended.

Scientific Method - Characteristics The ultimate goal of the method is to seek explanation, rather than mere description. It seeks to answer the “why” question.

Scientific Method 1. Observation of phenomena; 2. Development of hypothesis to explain observation; 3. Development of predictions based on hypothesis; 4. Experiments conducted to test predictions; 5. Data collection and analysis (data can be numerical, graphical, visual observations, case studies, etc.); 6. Modify hypothesis until it is consistent with the observations; and 7. Derive conclusion.

Special Features of Scientific Method Empirical Observable phenomenon Verifiable Use senses to confirm or refute the observation. Intuitions and revelations are out. Replicability needed. Cummulative Knowledge grows. Need not start from scratch. Deterministic Explains why things happen? Parsimony  Minimum No. of variables that explain variance

Special Features of Scientific Method Ethical and ideological neutrality Value free. Objectivity. Is it possible? Statistical generalization Subjecting information to statistical analysis. (Statistics is a device for comparing what is observed and what is logically expected). Rationalism Employ rigorous rules of logic. Argumentation

Scientific Research Process Formulate the Research Idea/Problem. From your own experience/interest/observation/work Conduct a Literature Review: Find out and review what work is already done or ongoing Identify and define your key concepts. Formulate Research Questions, Objectives and Hypotheses as appropriate. Collect your Data. Analyse and Discuss your Data. Draw Appropriate Conclusion(s). Write the Research Report/Dissertation.

Generating Scientific Knowledge Induction: moving from specific observations to a general conclusion. Observe phenomena and record them. Study data recorded for possible patterns and regularities. Seek explanation(s) to such patterns where they exist. This is where a theory that explains what has been discovered, can emerge. Deduction: movement from a theory to specific observations on the basis of a theory, an investigator predicts certain phenomena. Next, the investigator observes and collects data to ascertain whether the phenomena occur as predicted.

Inductivism General statements (theories) have to be based on empirical observations, which are subsequently generalized into statements which can either be regarded as true or probably true. The classical example goes from a series of observations: Swan no. 1 was white, Swan no. 2 was white, Swan no. 3 was white,… to the general statement: All swans are white. Proof by Induction

Laws of Logic The Law of Identity The Law of Non-Contradiction The Law of Rational Inference The Law of the Excluded Middle plus Occam’s Razor

Laws of Logic The Law of Identity The Law of Non- Contradiction This states that if something is true, it is always true. That which is, is. For example, men are men, women are women and small furry creatures from Alpha Centauri are small furry creatures from Alpha Centauri; This states that two statements which are antithetical (opposite) cannot both be true. For example, Aristotle cannot be both alive and dead at the same time;

Laws of Logic The Law of Rational Inference The Law of the Excluded Middle This states that if statement A is equal to statement B and if statement B is equal to statement C, then statement A is equal to statement C. This states that if a statement is not true, then the opposite of that statement is taken to be true. For example, if Aristotle is not alive, he must be dead Or, the disjunctive proposition "Either it is raining or it is not raining" must be true.

Laws of Logic Occam’s Razor "Entities should not be multiplied unnecessarily" {"Pluralitas non est ponenda sine neccesitate"}, taken to mean in this case that if two theories present themselves that are both equally likely to be true, pick the one that makes the fewest assumptions.

Logic Puzzle

Logic Puzzle Aristotle said that there is a difference between the following two statements; “The wood is not white” “It is not white wood” Can you see the difference?

Logic Puzzle - Solution “The wood is not white” This statement means that the thing under discussion IS wood BUT isn’t white, so, from example, it could be green wood, yellow wood or black wood “It is not white wood” This statement means that it is anything other that white wood, so, for example, it could be blue wood, green metal, or white plastic.

Scientific Research Involves both deduction and induction. May start with a theory and deduce certain phenomena that he then sets out to observe. If successive observations do not fit the theory, then the theory can be revised and, ultimately, rejected. Observations then lead to a new theory through induction. Can be either quantitative or qualitative in method and approach. Quantitative approach - relies heavily on statistical data collected through empirical observation or from statistical digests. Analysed through the use of statistical tools with a view to testing hypotheses and offering explanations Qualitative approaches rely more on data that are in the form of words rather than numbers. Categorized into themes and evaluated with a view to describing or discovering phenomena.

Getting Started With Your Research

Getting Started Start with a valid statement of the problem the research seeks to address This problem arises from accepted knowledge or practice w.r.t topic under investigation Should show clearly Gap to be filled Issues to be clarified By the proposed research study

Research Comfort Zone What’s out there? Start broad… One search term… Lots of results Narrow down. Add search words Find your focus Ask a research question … from different angles Come at it … But does it get you anywhere? Get very specific Source Williams K. (2009), Getting Critical, Palgrame Macmillan

Steps in Research Process Problem Stage Planning Stage Identify the PROBLEM area. Survey the LITERATURE relating to the problem in light of the literature, explain the problem for investigation in clear, specific terms. Identify and define relevant CONCEPTS or VARIABLES and relate them to each other in testable HYPOTHESES I.E. answerable research questions and research objectives as appropriate. Construct the RESEARCH DESIGN to maximize validity: (a) select your subjects (if required;) (b) control and/or manipulate variables (if required;) (c) establish criteria to evaluate outcomes; (d) engage in instrumentation – select or develop measuring instrument(s), if necessary. Specify the DATA COLLECTION procedures, and Select and specify the DATA ANALYSIS methods.

Steps in Research Process Execution Stage Execute research as planned; ANALYSE the data answering research questions, meeting research objectives and testing hypotheses specified; report findings of tests and any additional information of interest to the research problem. EVALUATE the results and draw CONCLUSIONS relating these to the problem area.

Finding the Topic Selecting a topic for your research is an important decision It should be Interesting Relevant Something you will want to work on If you have a passion for a particular area of research, this passion will give you the determination you need to reach your goal.

Planning your research: Key questions What do you want to know? How do you find out what you want to know? Where can you get the information? Who do you need to ask? When does your research need to be done? Why? (Getting the answer)