Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Motivation and Emotion Chapter 9

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Motivation and Emotion Motive Specific need or desire, such as hunger, thirst, or achievement, that prompts goal- directed behavior Emotion Feeling, such as fear, joy, or surprise, that underlies behavior

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Perspectives on Motivation

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Instincts Inborn, goal-directed behavior that is characteristic of an entire species Human behavior is not easily explained by instincts because Most important human behavior is learned Human behavior is rarely inflexible

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Drive-Reduction Theory Drive A state of tension or arousal caused by bodily needs Theory states that motivated behavior is an attempt to reduce a drive and return the body to homeostasis Primary drive Unlearned drive, such as hunger, based on a physiological state Secondary drive Learned drive, such as ambition

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Arousal Theory People are motivated to seek an optimal level of arousal for a given moment Yerkes-Dodson law States that there is an optimal level or arousal for best performance on any task The more complex the task, the lower the level of arousal that can be tolerated without interfering with performance

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Yerkes-Dodson Law

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Incentives External stimuli that prompt goal-directed behavior We are often unaware of the incentive Examples Aroma of food may cause us to eat even when not hungry Advertisements can lead us to buy a product

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic motivation Motivation for a behavior is the behavior itself Children playing is an example Extrinsic motivation Behavior is performed in order to obtain a reward or to avoid punishment A bonus program is an example

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Hunger

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Biological Factors Hunger appears to be regulated by regions in the hypothalamus Lateral hypothalamus acts as a feeding center, triggering the onset of eating Ventromedial hypothalamus acts as a satiety center, stopping eating behavior Paraventricular nucleus influences the drive to eat specific foods In addition, areas in cortex and spinal cord also play a role

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Biological Factors Changes in blood glucose level, fats, carbohydrates, and insulin signal need for food Leptin, a hormone released by fat cells, can signal satiety Receptors in the stomach and a hormone released by small intestine also signal brain about satiety

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Cultural and Environmental Factors Responses to food are governed by learning and social conditioning For example, time of day can trigger the body to become hungry Culture also influences what we choose to eat and how much we consume

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Eating Disorders Anorexia nervosa Intense fear of weight gain Distorted body image Refusal to maintain minimal normal body weight Absence of at least three consecutive menstrual cycles (for women) About 1% of adolescents afflicted Approximately 90% of those are white upper- and middle-class females

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Eating Disorders Bulimia nervosa Recurrent episodes of binge eating Recurrent behaviors to prevent weight gain, such as self-induced vomiting Behaviors must occur at least twice a week for three months Body shape and weight overly influence self-image Symptoms occur independent of anorexia About 1-2% of female adolescents afflicted

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Obesity Considered by U.S. Surgeon General to be the most pressing health problem today Obesity can lead to increased risk for Hypertension Cardiovascular disease Diabetes Sleep apnea Tendency may be inherited

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Thirst

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Thirst Both internal and external cues can trigger the thirst drive Internal cues include level of fluids inside body cells and amount of fluids outside body cells External cues can include advertisements and weather conditions

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Sexual Motivation

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Biological Factors Testosterone Important in both men and women in early development Not very important for regulating sexual activity in humans Pheromones Scents secreted which can promote sexual readiness, particularly in animals

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Cultural and Environmental Factors Human sexual motivation is much more dependent on experience and learning than on biology Men are very responsive to visual stimuli Women respond better to touch Culture can influence what is sexually attractive

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Human Sexual Response Cycle Excitement Plateau Orgasm Resolution

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Sexual Orientation Refers to the direction of an individual’s sexual interest Heterosexual Sexual attraction to other gender Homosexual Sexual attraction to same gender Bisexual Sexual attraction to both genders Examination of causes of differing orientations is a nature-nurture debate

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Other Motives Exploration and curiosity Manipulation and contact Aggression Intent is a key element of aggression Aggressive behavior may be innate, although learning clearly plays a role Aggression and culture Gender and aggression Males are more physically aggressive

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Other Motives Achievement Motivation to excel at a task Desire is for achievement for its own sake Affiliation Motivation to be with others

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Maslow’s Hierarchy of Motives Physiological needs Safety needs Belongingness needs Esteem needs Self-actualization needs

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Emotions

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Basic Emotions Fear Surprise Sadness Disgust Anger Anticipation Joy Acceptance Plutchik proposed that there are eight basic emotions

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Plutchik’s Basic Emotions

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Basic Emotions Some have criticized Plutchik’s model as applying only to English-speakers Revised model of basic emotions includes: Happiness Surprise Sadness Fear Disgust Anger

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Theories of Emotion James-Lange theory Environmental stimuli bring on physiological changes that we interpret as emotions Cannon-Bard theory Environmental stimuli elicit emotions and bodily responses simultaneously Cognitive theory Environment gives us clues that help us interpret physiological reaction

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Theories of Emotion

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Nonverbal Communication of Emotion Voice quality Facial expression Body language Posture and the way we move communicates information Personal space Explicit acts For example, slamming doors

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Gender, Culture and Emotion

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Gender and Emotion Men and women feel emotions equally, but express them differently Men and women may experience different emotions in the same situation Anger Men tend to direct their anger outward Women tend to direct their anger inward Women are more skilled at understanding nonverbal components of emotion

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Culture and Emotion Expression of emotion can be influenced by cultural norms Some emotional displays are universal Display rules Culture-specific rules that govern how, when, and why expressions of emotion are appropriate