A tradition of skepticism…

In early history, people focused their efforts on gaining an understanding of the physical world.

Inquiries into the physical world  Ptolemy, 2 nd century BCE  Copernicus, 1500s CE  Galileo, 1600s  Newton, 1600s  His laws explained the movement of everything visible in the universe  But the church maintained that it was God who controlled the social world

But then people started to speculate that maybe the mysteries of the social world could also be examined in a scientific way!

First attempt: Auguste Comte,  coined the term sociology  Argued people no longer understood the way things ought to be  Believed human greed and selfishness resulted in social chaos  Humans suffered from “intellectual anarchy”

First attempt: Auguste Comte,  Believed social chaos would be overcome when people accepted that knowledge should be based on scientific principles.  Sociologists would use the scientific method and advise people about how to live.

Origins of Modern Sociology: France’s Emile Durkheim  Even a society filled with selfish people would together because we need each other to survive.  “Collective conscience”  Worked for pre-modern societies  Modern society was different

Origins of Modern Sociology: France’s Emile Durkheim,  In pre-modern society, people had been held together because of their likeness, but in modern society, held together by differences.

Origins of Modern Sociology: France’s Emile Durkheim  Paradox:  In modern society we want to be free but have no choice but to keep social ties  Society’s structure forces us to interact

Origins of Modern Sociology: France’s Emile Durkheim  Must focus on the nature of society itself!  Social phenomena do exist!  Social patterns do exist!  Social facts do exist!  Thus, his definition of sociology: the scientific study of social facts.  Durkheim’s definition of “social facts”- manners of acting, thinking, and feeling, external to the individual, which are invested with a coercive power by virtue which they exercise control over him.

“social facts”- manners of acting, thinking, and feeling, external to the individual, which are invested with a coercive power by virtue which they exercise control over him. Test this definition! Partner up and discuss: Are norms truly social facts? Test this for yourself. Does the rule or norm that one must wear clothing to class qualify as a social fact according to Durkheim’s definition? Explain why or why not.

Origins of Modern Sociology: Germany  Ferdinand Tonnies,  Agreed with Durkheim but with a twist: he wanted to understand how social relationships between people differed in pre-modern and modern societies

Tonnies concluded there are two categories of social relationships: “Gemeinschaft” “Gesellschaft”  Communal relationships  Social relationships that people enter into as ends in and of themselves  For emotional reasons  He thought pre-modern society was more like this.  Goal-driven relationships  Social relationships that people enter into as means to specific ends  For the purpose of achieving a goal  He thought modern society was more like this. Thus, the type of the relationship determines the rules of the relationship!

Test these definitions! Partner up and discuss: Which of the following types of relationships are most likely to be gemeinschaft? What about gesellschaft? a. Friend-friend b. Wife-husband c. Doctor-patient d. Retailer- customer e. Minister- parishioner f. Parent-child g. Worker-boss

Challenge question: Generally, the banker-client relationship in modern society is gesellschaft. Yet, from watching television advertisements for banks, one might conclude that the banker-client relationship is supposed to be gemeinschaft. For example, many banks seem to make a big deal of claiming to be “friendly bankers” or “good neighbors.”  Why would banks promote their services as gemeinschaft rather than gesellschaft?  What, if any, danger is there in thinking of your relationship with your banker as gemeinschaft when it is really gesellschaft?

Origins of Modern Sociology: Germany  Max Weber,  Liked Tonnies ideas about motives  “Rational behavior:” seeing each other as means to an end; rational as “calculating”

Individual think time:  Think about two things you do for what Weber would call rational reasons? In what respect are your motives rational?  Consider the flip side. Think about two things you do for what Weber might consider non- rational reasons? In what respect are your motives non-rational?

Weber observed that people choose efficient, rational behaviors in modern society.  Also observed that “society” looks down upon those who simply do things for enjoyment (non-rational).  Weber wanted to know why society seemed to drive us toward “rational” behaviors

Origins of Modern Sociology: Germany  Karl Marx  Did not see himself as a sociologist!  But, sociologists rank him as completely influential  Economics mattered  Class distinctions mattered  Economics was the driving force behind social decisions  Hence, a sociologist!

Origins of Modern Sociology: England  Herbert Spencer,  Believed societies evolved  His work published six years BEFORE Darwin’s  “Social Darwinism”  Survival of the fittest  Can be deadly premise  His bottom line: the competition to survive will be won by “the best”

Sociology in the United States  US role in the field came later than Europe  1 st course at Yale  1 st sociology dept. at University of Chicago, 1892  American Sociological Association, 1905

Sociology in the United States  Different approach  Not focused on theories  Focused on solving specific social problems  Jane Addams  Social welfare reform (Hull House)  W.E.B. DuBois  Racial inequalities & ethnic differences  Wrote to expose injustices in order to remedy them

The Place of Sociology in Modern Society  Evolved to prominence by the end of the 19 th century  Social world viewed as worthy of study  By using scientific tools we could make sense of the social world.  Skepticism continues today…