Stress and Coping Josée L. Jarry, Ph.D., C.Psych. Health Psychology, psy333 Department of Psychology University of Toronto October 28, 2002

Definition (1) Aldwin (1994) Quality of experience, produced through a person- environment transaction, that through over- or under-arousal, results in psychological or physiological distress Hans Selye The non-specific result of any demand upon the body, be the effect mental or somatic Eustress is a positive stressful experience, a state of physical and psychological well-being that is associated with increased motivation and the acceptance of a challenge. What is essential to well-being is a balance to produce an optimal level of arousal Too little stress can be as harmful as too much Stress can result from being over- or under-stimulated

Definition (2) Lazarus & Folkman (1984) A relationship between a person and the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his/her well-being This definition introduces the important notion of subjective appraisal Walter Canon Introduced the concept of homeostasis: body’s attempt at maintaining a stable internal state Stress challenges homeostasis Fight or Flight response Complex ANS reaction in preparation for emergencies

Definition (3) Rice, P. R. (1999) Stressors External, environmental demands placed on us that cause us to feel stressed Subjective response Interpretive mental state of the individual Allows one to diminish, augment, or distort the impact of external events Body’s physical response to stress Physiological challenges which, if prolonged, can result in a negative state, or alternatively, an improved capacity to cope physiologically

The Physiology of Stress 2 major components to the physical response to stress: Nervous system Endocrine system

Structure of the Nervous System Central nervous system is made of: Brain Spinal cord Peripheral nervous system is made of: Somatic nervous system Receives information from the sensory organs Controls movements of the skeletal muscles Autonomic nervous system (ANS) Primarily serves internal organs Has 2 divisions: Sympathetic Parasympathetic

Sympathetic Response to Stress Hypothalamus causes: Increases arousal in the sympathetic nervous system Increased heart rate & blood pressure Constriction of peripheral blood vessels Respiration rates increase Bronchial tubes dilate Pupils dilate Digestive processes decrease Sympathetic activation prepares the body for intense motor activity

Parasympathetic response to stress Serves regenerative, growth-promoting, energy- conserving functions Its effects include the opposite of the effect of the sympathetic nervous system Functions under normal, non-stressful conditions Also activated by the hypothalamus re-establishes homeostasis in the system reconstructive process following stressful experience slows the heart rate & decreases blood pressure decreases muscle tension slows respiration neutralizes fight or flight response

Structure of the Endocrine System The endocrine system consists of ductless glands distributed throughout the body The neuroendocrine system is made of those endocrine glands that are controlled by the nervous system Glands of the endocrine and neuroendocrine systems secrete chemicals called hormones Hormones move into the blood stream to be carried throughout the body Specialized receptors on target tissues or organs allow hormones to have specific effects even though they circulate throughout the body

Endocrine Responses to Stress Hypothalamus causes: The pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) that stimulates the adrenal cortex Sympathetic fibers to directly activate the adrenal medulla The adrenal glands are located on top of each kidney Each gland is composed of: –an outer covering: the adrenal cortex –an inner part: the adrenal medulla Both secrete hormones that are important in the stress response

Adrenomedullary Response - SAM Occurs through the activation of the sympathetic- adrenal medulla (SAM) complex: Perception of stress causes the hypothalamus (via nervous connection) to activate sympathetic fibers Sympathetic fibers activate the adrenal medulla Adrenal medulla secretes the catecholamines: epinephrine & norepinephrine This causes: Increased heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate & blood glucose levels Shuts down digestive system Rapid, short-lived response to stress

Adrenocortical Response - HPA Occurs through the activation of the hypothalamus- pituitary-adrenal (HPA) cortex complex: Perception of stress causes the hypothalamus to release ACTH releasing hormone This causes the anterior pituitary to secrete ACTH ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids Glucocorticoids Protein and fat get metabolized into glucose Reduce inflammation, suppress immune cells Mineralocorticoids Blood volume and pressure increase

Sympathetic and Endocrine Responses to Stress Stress perception causes a chain reaction: SAM rapid, short-term stress reaction the sympathetic NS stimulates the adrenal medulla the adrenal medulla produces epinephrine and norepinephrine HPA slower but longer-lasting response the pituitary releases ACTH ACTH causes the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids

Brain Response to Stress Limbic System Adds an element of emotion to the experience of stress Usually negative emotions: fear, anger, anxiety, pain Reticular formation Communication network that filters messages to the body Receives input from all the sensory systems and determines which sensory information is processed or blocked This allows us to selectively attend to specific tasks while ignoring irrelevant information

The General Adaptation Syndrome (1) Defined by Selye in Comprises 3 stages: Stage I: Alarm The body’s defences against stressors are mobilized through activation of the sympathetic nervous system Activation of the SAM complex Arousal of the sympathetic nervous system releases hormones (adrenaline) that help prepare the body to meet stress and danger Highly adaptive short term response to an emergency situation

The General Adaptation Syndrome (2) Stage II: Resistance The body enters this stage if the stress is prolonged Activation of the HPA complex Arousal is lower But the body continues to draw on internal resources at an above normal rate Outwards appearance seems normal Physiologically, the body’s internal functioning is not normal Sets the stage for diseases of adaptation (e.g., peptic ulcers, ulcerative colitis)

The General Adaptation Syndrome (3) Stage III: Exhaustion Continued exposure to the same stressor drains the body further The capacity to resist is depleted Illness results This stage is characterized by activation of the parasympathetic division of the ANS But at an abnormally low level In severe cases, results in death

Cognitive - Transactional Model Lazarus & Folkman (1984) Propose that the interpretation of stressful events is more important than the events themselves It is neither the environmental event nor the person’s response that defines stress It is the individual’s perception of the psychological situation that defines stress Stress is a function of the person’s feeling of threat, vulnerability, and ability to cope rather than a function of the stressor Distinguish three kinds of appraisal

Primary appraisal Initial evaluation of a situation 3 possible outcomes: Irrelevant the event has no implication for the individual’s well-being Benign-positive the event may increase well-being Stressful the situation is perceived as harmful, threatening, or challenging

Primary appraisal (2) Harm/loss involves actual significant physical or psychological loss psychological damage that has already been done Threat the anticipation of harm or loss allows to anticipate and prepare for the future Challenge the event is perceived as stressful the focus is on positive excitement refers to the person’s confidence in overcoming difficult demands

Secondary Appraisal Concerned with a person’s evaluation of his/her ability to cope with the situation The individual asks 3 questions: which coping options are available? the likelihood that one can apply the strategy the likelihood that any given options will work: will it reduce stress? Reappraisal continuous reappraisal on the basis of new information identical to the initial process may lead to more stress

Coping (1) Lazarus and Folkman (1984) Constantly changing cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage specific internal and/or external demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person Several important elements of the definition: Coping is a process of constant evaluation of the success of one’s strategies Coping is learned as one encounters situations Coping requires effort Coping is an effort to manage. Success is not contingent on mastery, just good enough

Coping (2) Health & energy Positive belief the ability to cope is enhanced when people believe they can successfully bring about desired consequences Problem-solving skills having specific knowledge or abilities related to specific problem Social skill ability to get other people to cooperate Social support feeling of being accepted, loved, or prized by others Material Resources

Coping (3) Problem Focussed Coping consists of changing the situation redefining the problem looking at alternative solutions evaluating the implications of the alternatives choosing the best one to act on Emotion-focussed coping consists of controlling and possibly changing the emotional response to an event cognitive responses such as avoidance or minimization the goal is to decrease emotional distress often used when the individual feels that nothing can be done about the situation

Stress and Control Stephen Weiss (1968, 1971) Study 1 reliable escape response reduces development of ulcers Study 2 predictable stressors produced fewer ulcers true even in the absence of an escape response option Study 3 feedback about effectiveness of response results in fewer ulcers Conclusion the physiological effects of stress can be greatly reduced if the organism can engage in controlling behaviour getting feedback that one’s behaviour is effective can further reduce the physiological effects of stress