Culture, Parenting and Child Development: Is There an Optimal Developmental Trajectory ? Cigdem Kagitcibasi Koc University, Istanbul, Turkey ACEV Concluding Meeting of the “QualiFLY” Project Istanbul, May 22-25, 2007

Development of Competence and of Self - Focus on Disadvantage - Focus on Social Change / Immigration Understand, Explain, Predict Ascertain Problems and Mismatches Help Promote Well-Being

Parenting in low SES homes Low level of emotional support and cognitive stimulation Variations in parental involvement Cognitively stimulating home environment significant above and beyond SES Amount of mother-child verbal interaction Child Outcome 1/3 to 1/2 of the disadvantage in verbal and math skills disparities in achievement Child cognitive development vocabulary/concept formation of Turkish immigrant children in Holland. Korenman (1995) Eccles and Harold (1993); Epstein (1990) Gottfried, Fleming and Gottfried (1998) Leseman (1993) Van Tuijl & Leseman (2004) account for lead to account for for DEVELOPMENT OF COMPETENCE Importance of Proximal Environment

The policy implications have to do with early cognitive enrichment and education programs to support parents and other caretakers to provide more stimulating environments to young children. A very important issue here is social change –The world’s population is fast becoming less rural and more urban. What was adaptive in rural context may not be adaptive in urban life.

Urbanization of Populations

Given the increasing similarity in urban life styles in the world, and particularly with the expansion of public education, some common standards of competence are emerging We can contribute significantly to the enhancement of the developmental trajectories of children and youth.

IMPLICATIONS FOR APPLICATION: EARLY ENRICHMENT as AN EXAMPLE Concerted efforts have been expended in many countries to provide deprived children with early enrichment that would enhance their ability to benefit from formal schooling. The research program from Turkey and its resultant program applications to be presented here derive from a 22-year longitudinal study, including an original 4-year longitudinal study and its first and second follow-up, known as the Turkish Early Enrichment Project (TEEP).

THE TURKISH EARLY ENRICHMENT PROJECT (TEEP) LONG-TERM EFFECTS, POLICY AND APPLICATIONS Kağıtçıbaşı, Sunar, Bekman(2001), Applied Developmental Psychology, 22, Kağıtçıbaşı, Sunar, Bekman & Cemalcilar (submitted)

Background Low SES Low Education Mediating variable Mother-Child Interaction Direct attention given to the child Communication with the child Satisfaction with the child Expectation of obedience/autonomy Outcome: Child’s cognitive development, school performance, socioemotional development Mother Training Promoting child’s cognitive development Promoting child’s socioemotional development Empowerment of the mother Building communication skills THE TURKISH EARLY-ENRICHMENT PROJECT (TEEP)

DESIGN OF TEEP STUDY Number of subjects in each group Educational Day-care Custodial Day-care Home Care Total Age of child3 yr.5 yr.3 yr.5 yr.3 yr.5 yr. Mother training No Mother training Total

FIRST FOLLOW-UP STUDY OF TEEP 1992 ADOLESCENTS (13-15 years of age) Kağıtçıbaşı, Sunar, Bekman(2001), Applied Developmental Psychology, 22,

PRIMARY SCHOOL GPA’S t= 3.08, p<.002, t= 3.01, p<.003, t=2.82, p<.005 MEAN SCORES

STANDARDIZED WISC-R VOCABULARY SCORES MEAN SCORES F (2, 216) = 2.16, p<.032

IS ADOLESCENT STILL IN SCHOOL? PERCENTOF YES RESPONSES X 2 = 9.57 P<.002 %86%67

SECOND FOLLOW-UP STUDY OF TEEP 2004 YOUNG ADULTS (25-27 years of age) (Kagitcibasi, C, Sunar, D., Bekman, S, & Cemalcilar, Z., 2006, submitted)

School attainment of those who either had attended an educational child care center and/or their mothers had training (I) and those who had no early intervention (NI) School attainment I NI [ANCOVA F (1, 127) =3.218, p=.07 ]

University attendance of those who either had attended an educational child care center and/or whose mothers had training. attending university I NI percentage [X 2 =4.432, df=1, p=.03 ]

Vocabulary test performance by home based education [ANCOVA F (1,98) =3.362, p=.09]

Age of beginning gainful employment age of beginning gainful employment I NI F (1,121) =4.708, p=.03

Occupational status occupational status I NI [F (1,128) =4.130, p=.04]

Computer ownership owns a computer I NI percentage [X 2 =5.981, df=1, p=.014]

Credit card ownership has credit card MTNMT percentagee [X 2 =3.955, df=1, p=.047]

Much can be accomplished by reaching children early in life to build both environmental and individual capacity that can be sustained over time. Improving the environment, while enhancing individual cognitive performance, helps in turn to support that performance further, in a synergistic interaction. Our accumulated knowledge and insights can provide us with possibly universal standards of competence and healthy human development. GENERAL POLICY IMPLICATIONS

TARGET DURATION FORM MOTHERS WITH 5 YEAR OLD CHILDREN GROUP DISCUSSIONS 25 WEEKS MOTHER CHILD EDUCATION PROGRAM By 2005, 350,000 women + children reached. Extensions to Europe (Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, France) and to Arab countries (Bahrain, Jordan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia) TV adaptation on national and international Turkish Public Television

DEVELOPMENT OF SELF The Basic Thesis Autonomy and Relatedness are two basic needs. Therefore, an Optimal Developmental Trajectory should include both.

While, all societies manage to meet these two basic needs, Autonomy has been prioritized in the Western World and in Psychology - reflected in an emphasis on individual independence, agency, privacy... - often at the expense of interpersonal relatedness

What is the underlying reason? Not evolutionary, which rather stresses the survival value of cooperation and relatedness in humans and other primates (Euler et al, 2001; Guisinger & Blatt, 1994). It is cultural... Western Individualism as a ‘Cultural Affordance’ (Kitayama, 2002; Poortinga, 1992).

Yet, it is neither logically nor psychologically necessary for Autonomy to mean Separateness if we recognize the existence of two distinct dimensions: Agency: Autonomy Heteronomy (dependency) Interpersonal Distance : Separateness Relatedness

A Conceptual Model of Different Types of Selves Autonomous-Separate self Heteronomous-separate self Autonomous-related self AGENCY INTERPERSONAL DISTANCE Heteronomous-related self Autonomy Heteronomy Separation Relatedness

This conceptualization renders viable The Autonomous-Related Self Despite the consensual agreement that Autonomy and Relatedness are basic needs, this self construal has not been readily recognized in psychology, even in cross-cultural psychology. Yet, this model promises to be a healthy integration. Kagitcibasi, C. (2005). Autonomy and relatedness in cultural context: Implications for self and family. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 36, 4,

The two dimensions of interpersonal distance and agency can indeed fit together, loading on the same factor, in sociocultural contexts, such as in Northern Europe (Beyers et al., 2003), where being both autonomous and separate is valued, but not in other sociocultural contexts where being connected is valued and does not imply lacking autonomy. (Kagitcibasi, 2005)

CONTRASTING VIEWS ON RELATIONS WITH PARENTS AS PRECURSORS OF HEALTHY AUTONOMY Distancing (detachment) necessary for autonomy — Psychoanalytic (A.Freud, 1958; Mahler, 1972;Blos, 1979; Hoffman, 1984; Steinberg & Silverberg, 1986) Confounds agency and interpersonal distance dimensions Close relation (attachment) necessary for autonomy — (Grotevant & Cooper, 1986; Ryan et al, 1989, 2000; Quintana & Kerr, 1993; Schwartz, 2000; Schmitz & Baer, 2001; Grossman, et al, 1999) Integrates agency and interpersonal distance dimensions versus

A second Thesis: In conjunction with social change (esp. urbanization and immigration), Family changes, too. From the Model of Total Interdependence to the Model of Psychological / Emotional Interdependence. This model includes both relatedness and autonomy.

FAMILY MODELS, PARENTING AND THE SELF InterdependenceIndependencePsychological interdependence Parenting styleAuthoritarian Relatively permissive Authoritative Child rearing orientation Control / obedienceAutonomy / self reliance Control / autonomy Self Heteronomous Related Autonomous separate Autonomous-related

AGENCY, INTERPERSONAL DISTANCE AND THE TYPES OF SELVES IN CONTEXT Family model of independence Self-reliance orientation Autonomous-Separate self Hierarchical neglecting family Neglecting, indifferent orientation Heteronomous-separate self Family model of psychological interdependence Order setting control and autonomy orientation Autonomous-related self AGENCY INTERPERSONAL DISTANCE Family model of interdependence Obedience orientation Heteronomous-related self Autonomy Heteronomy Separation Relatedness

RESEARCH EVIDENCE Ryan & Lynch (1989) and Ryan et al. (1994) in the U.S. found positive rather than negative links between relatedness to parents and autonomy in adolescents. Kim, Butzel & Ryan (1998) showed a more positive relation between autonomy and relatedness than with separateness in both Korean and American samples. Keller et al (2003) found Greek mothers’ interaction styles with infants to lead to autonomy and relatedness but German mothers’ to autonomy and separateness. Beyers, Goossens, Vansant, & Moors (2003) found separation and agency as two independent dimensions. All endorsing the independence of the agency and interpersonal distance dimensions.

RESEARCH EVIDENCE (cont.) Beyers, Goossens (1999); Chen & Dornbush (1998); Garber & Little (2001) showed separateness from parents to be associated with developmental problems. Chou (2000) in Hong Kong found individuation to be associated with depression in adolescents. Phalet & Schonpflug (2001) found among Turkish immigrants in Germany parental autonomy goals do not imply separateness, and achievement values are associated with parental collectivism, not individualism. Koutrelakos (2004) found decreasing material but continuing emotional interdependencies in Greek Americans with acculturation.

RESEARCH EVIDENCE (cont.) Aydın & Öztütüncü (2001) found depression to be associated with separateness in Turkish adolescents, but not with high parental control. Meeus, Oosterwegel & Vollebergh (2002) found with Dutch, Turkish & Moroccon adolescents that secure attachment fosters agency. Kwak (2003) in review of research noted the common preference of adolescents for both autonomy and family relatedness. Georgas, Berry, Van de Vijver, Kagitcibasi & Poortinga (2006) in a 27-country study of the family found evidence for autonomy and relatedness to coexist in the psychologically interdependent family.

CONTROL and AUTONOMY Empirical Evidence Lau et al. (1990) Lin & Fu (1990) Cha (1994) Phalet & Schonpflug (2001) CONTROL and WARMTH Empirical Evidence Kağıtçıbaşı (1970) Rohner & Pettengill (1985) Trommsdorf (1985) Ryan & Lynch (1989) Kim, Butzel & Ryan (1998) Jose et al. (2000) Oosterwegel & Vollebergh (2002) Kwak (2003) Lansford et al. (2003) Dekovic, Pels & Model (in press) Models Kağıtçıbaşı (1990,1996a,b) Models Baumrind (1980, 1989) Maccoby & Martin (1983)

The implications of these conceptualizations and research for immigration: Immigration most often involves contact between ‘culture of relatedness’ (immigrants) and individualistic ‘culture of separateness’ (host society). Ethnic minority parents tend to be labeled ‘authoritarian’ because of strong parental discipline because it appears very controlling (Gonzales, et al, 1996). But, this may be a wrong attribution because there is often also relatedness and warmth (psychological value of children) in the Family Model of Psychological Interdependence, especially with increased education.

Ethnic Minority Research in Europe and the U.S. point to:  Closely-Knit family relations and  Parental control together with care (warmth) Chao (1994) Smetana & Gaines (1999) Jose et al. (2000) Kwak (2003) Lansford et al. (2003) Dekovic et al. (2005)

Dekovic, Pels & Model (2006) study as a case in point: Six major ethnic groups in the Netherlands (including also the native Dutch) General finding: Parents who use strong discipline (authoritarian control) can also be warm and supportive.. ‘An unlikely combination.’ Why unlikely? Because of the assumption that parental control means parental rejection (hostility) and suppression of autonomy, based on an individualistic view assuming that permissive, independence oriented parenting which leads to separation and individuation promotes autonomy.

Adaptation is a key concept in understanding content of change through acculturation But a corresponding demand for separateness not found (Kwak, 2003; Buriel et al., 2005) Autonomous-Related Self Implicated Environmental demands Social comparison Processes adolescents’ demands for more autonomy (Kwak, 2003; Phinney, 2005) }

The Explanatory Factor Underlying the Findings: Family Model of Psychological Interdependence Where autonomy and control coexist Permissive independence-oriented parenting not endorsed by immigrants because it carries the risk of separation (of the child from the family) in adolescence-young adulthood The goal is not separation but closeness (emotional interdependence) Immigrants disapprove the ‘too lenient’ Dutch childrearing and the ‘disrespectful’ behavior of Dutch children (‘on top of their mothers’ heads’’)

What is often labeled authoritarian parenting may be reflecting a sense of decency and morality, for example respect for age, with a concern for the ‘proper’ development of the child in the immigrant ‘culture of relatedness’. Ethnic minority mothers complain that social service agencies ignore parent’s views and sometimes separate children from their families or that Dutch clinicians do not understand them, a problem that goes beyond the language gap. With increasing education and acculturation, The Family Model of Psychological Interdependence emerging, entailing both autonomy and relatedness.

To Conclude: Given that the autonomous-related self is a healthy human model, since it satisfies both of the basic needs... Given that the recognition of agency and interpersonal distance dimensions helps resolve conceptual and measurement issues in I-C and Independent-Interdependent self... and Given that the Family Model of Psychological Interdependence involves both autonomy, control and warmth (psychological value of children)...

Ethnic minority family patterns should not be seen as unhealthy. Immigrants, particularly those with low levels of education and social capital have a lot to learn and have to acculturate to the host societies. However, from a cross- cultural psychological perspective, they have a lot to offer, also. Immigration involves culture contact with the potential for mutual learning and change. In particular, there could be a convergence toward the Family Model of Emotional Interdependence and the Autonomous-Related Self in multicultural society.

Thus Possibly Universal Optimal Developmental Trajectory because of converging Life Styles and Basic Human Needs Involving: - Social + Cognitive Competence - Autonomous-Related Self - Psychologically /Emotionally Interdependent Family Kagitcibasi, C. (2007) Family, Self and Human Development Across Cultures. Lawrence Erlbaum.