Lecture 14 – Psyco 350, B1 Fall, 2011 N. R. Brown

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 2 Outline 1.Semantic Memory Network Models The Nelly Study Scripts/Schemata 2. Discrepant Partner Reports and the MSP –The Discrepancy –MSP

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 3 Neely (1977) Basic Premises: 2 components to priming Automatic component:  fast, effortless, unaffected by intention/expectation Controlled component:  Attentional, Slow, Effortful,  Benefits (if correct)  Costs (if incorrect)

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 4 Neely (1977) Goal: Contrast automatic & controlled priming Task: Lexical Decision -- Timed Word/Non-word Decision Trial: Prime  Target  Response SOA RT SOA = Stimulus Onset Asynchrony

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 5 Neely (1977): Design Prime-Target* ExpectationX Relation X SOA. No Shift 250 msec Shift400 msec 700 msec 2000 msec * see next slide

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 6 No Shift Trials: See Bird as prime expect a bird name as target. 1. NeutralXXXX-- robin 2. No Shift BIRD -- robin 3.Shift (unexpected) BIRD-- arm Shift Trials: See Building as prime, expect a Body Part as target. 1. NeutralXXXXX -- window 2.No ShiftBUILDING -- window 3. Shift (expected)BUILDING-- leg 4.Shift (unexpected)BUILDING-- robin

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 7 No Shift Trials: See Bird as prime expect a bird name as target. 1. NeutralXXXX-- robin 2. No Shift BIRD -- robin80% primed trials 3.Shift (unexpected) BIRD-- arm20% primed trials Shift Trials: See Building as prime, expect a Body Part as target. 1. Neutral XXXXX -- window 2.No Shift BODY -- leg 10% primed trials 3. Shift (expected) BODY– window80% primed trials 4.Shift (unexpected) BODY – robin10% primed trials

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 8 Neely (1977): Results A Priming Effect: Neutral Trials - Primed Trials Two Type of Priming Effects: 1.Facilitation Effects -- Positive Priming Priming effect is positive -- Neutral > Primed 2.Inhibition Effect -- Negative Priming Priming effect is negative -- Neutral < Primed

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 9 Neely (1977) Results – NO Shift Expected 1.No-shift, same- category pairs (Bird-robin): Substantial facilitation at all SOA. 2. Shift, different-category pairs (Bird-arm): Inhibition increases with SOA

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 10 Neely (1977): Results – Shift Expected 1. Expected Shift (BODY – door): Facilitation increases with SOA 2. No-shift, same-category ( BODY -- heart): Facilitation at smallest SOA Increasing inhibition at longer SOAs

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 11 Neely (1977): Results – Shift Expected 1. Expected Shift ( Building-leg): Facilitation increases with SOA 2. No-shift, same-category pairs ( Building-window): Facilitation at smallest SOA Increasing inhibition at longer SOAs 3. Shift to unexpected category (BODY - robin ) Inhibition at all SOAs Inhibition increases with SOA

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 12 Neely (1977): An Explanation 1. Automatic Spreading Activation: Originates at prime, spreads to related concepts, decays rapidly. 2. Attention required to maintain activation over longer SOAs.

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 13 Neely (1977): An Explanation 3. Focusing attention on one category: facilitates (primes) processing of category members interferes with the processing (reading/word recognition) of items from other categories

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 14 Neely (1977): An Explanation 4. In the Shift-Expected condition, subjects shift attention to & maintain attention for cued category It takes time to shift attention to new category. Once attention is shifted, focus is on the new category.

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 15 Neely (1977): An Explanation Shifting categories takes times. Maintaining focus on indicated category: facilities processing of focal category members reduces attentional resources required to read & decide whether letter string is a word.

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 16 Semantic Networks & Priming Semantic Network –general knowledge representation –based on relatedness, meaning-based similarity Spreading Activation –automatic consequence of processing a related information –preparation for encountering the expected Activated concepts sometimes equated w/ consciousness & focal elements of WM (Cowan)

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 17 Schemata & Scripts Schemata: Complex, stable knowledge structures –occupations, geographical/architectural layouts, story structures, etc. Scripts: Schemata representing stereotypical event sequences Assumption – this knowledge is represented in semantic memory & used extensive in planning, comprehension, and recall (reconstruction)

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 18 Schemata Bartlett 1 st to recognize importance of schemata. “War of the Ghosts” Study English undgrads read a North American Indian legend twice. Recalled the story once after 15 min and then over of the course of several month

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 19 Bartlett – War of the Ghosts Main Findings: Reproduction distorted in ways that brought the story increasing in lines with European: –narrative conventions –beliefs re: physical & biological causality Interpretation : Participants combined fragmentary story memory with schematic knowledge to reconstruct a “sensible” story.

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 20 Schemata: General Findings When present: Schema-consistent info, well remembered Schema-inconsistent info, less well remembered. When NOT present: Schema-consistent info often falsely remembered (schema-driven reconstruction) Schema-inconstant info generally not falsely remembered

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 21 Recognizing Script-based Materials: Hannigan & Reinitz (2001) Schemata that capture general information about routine event sequences –Eating in a restaurant, attending a movie, a visiting a doctor’s office, attending class, going to the beach Scripts identify central (& less central) actions & typical (& atypical) roles, & props. When not specified (or experienced) central actions & typical roles & props inferred/reconstructed

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 22 Hannigan & Reinitz (2001): Method Materials: four 13-slide sequences –a sequence represented one script-based activity (e.g. grocery shopping) –including HIGH schema-relevant items (e.g. get shopping cart) LOW schema-relevant items (e.g., put food on belt) –Presentation: 5.5 s/slide

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 23 Hannigan & Reinitz (2001): Method

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 24 Hannigan & Reinitz (2001): Method Test Phase: 0-to-5 Recognition Confidence Judgment on each slide: 0 = certain slide not seen 5 = certain slide was seen Design: Item Type X Schema-relevance X Delay OLD high 15 min NEW low 48 hr

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 25 Hannigan & Reinitz (2001): Results For OLD items: Reco very good high > low For NEW 15 min delay: high > low tendency to infer/reconstruct stronger for high-relevance items

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 26 Hannigan & Reinitz (2001): Results Effect of Delay: OLD items: memory still very good False recognition  greatly for high- relevance items

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 27 Semantic Memory: Main Points Semantic networks can represent simple facts and reflect conceptual similarity/relatedness Semantic priming is well established process serves to prime related information Schemata/scripts – complex, stable knowledge structures captures generalizations re: complex, but regular features of experience. facilitate/bias perception & memory Challenge: Develop detailed extensions of these notions to deal with full range of knowledge domains & modalities

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 28 Memory for “How Many” Modal explicit memory test: Memory for “what” Other explicit memory test focus on event properties: when – event age/date/recency, list position where – physical location physical properties – appearance/sound/smell how often/how many – frequency

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 29 Memory for “How Many” Theoretical Issues: Understand the impact of repetition on memory. Why is frequency performance often very good? How is frequency information represented, updated, & used? How and when is frequency information used to inform probability judgments and prediction?

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 30 Memory for “How Many” Practical Issue: Self-reported “behavioral frequency” questions common in surveys & scales. –business, government, Social Sciences, medicine (epidemiology) When are estimates accurate/inaccurate? When/why are they inaccurate/biased? Is there anyway to improve accuracy?

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 31 A Commonly Asked Frequency Question

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 32 Importance Epidemiology Sociology Psychology Methodology ♂ SPs = ♀ SPs SP = sex partner

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 33 ♂ SP Mean = ♀ SP Means FMFM FMFM FMFM FMFM FMFM

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 34 ♂ SP Mean = ♀ SP Means FM (♀ SP = 2) = ( ♂ SPs = 2)

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 35 ♂ SP Mean = ♀ SP Means FMFMFMFMFMFMFMFMFMFM

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 36 ♂ SP Mean = ♀ SP Means FM (♀ SP = 2) = ( ♂ SPs = 2)

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 37 The Discrepancy ♂s report far more opposite-sex SPs than ♀s Magnitude: 2 X – 4X Generality: US, UK, France, Canada, Norway, New Zealand

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 38 SP Discrepancy as Case Study: Explanations SamplingResponse SocialCognitive

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 39 Sampling Account (Brewer, et al 2000) Prostitutes under-sampled Support: –adjustment = estimate[# CSW]* estimate [# partners/CSW] –adjustment reduces discrepancy Problems –implication: For ♂ s, ≈75% SP are CSWs –Wiederman (1997) – removing “Johns” reduces discrepancy slightly, but does not eliminate it.

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 40 Social Account: Self-Presentation Bad-faith Explanations Respondents are "telling themselves and others enormous lies“ -- Lewontin "Intentional misreports are the main source of the discrepancies.” -- Smith

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 41 Social Account: Self-Presentation Bad-faith Explanations Assumed to Reflect a socially prescribed Directional Biases The-Macho-and-the-Maiden Hypothesis: ♂ exaggerate ♀ minimize

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 42 The Social Account: Support Intuition Robust attitude differences (Oliver & Hyde, 1993)

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 43 The Stakes Bad-Faith Partner Estimates Undermine credibility of self-report placing "all scientific sociology...in deep trouble” -- Lewontin

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 44 A Problem for the Social Account Problem: Non-discrepant response patterns are the norm -- duration, frequency, activities, # past-year SPs Example: Laumann et al. (1994)

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 45 A Cognitive Account The Multiple Strategies Perspective Links the discrepancy to between-sex differences in strategy use. Identifies common strategies w/ explicable bias Enumeration  underestimation “Rough Approximation”  overestimation

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 46 Multiple Strategy Perspective multiple strategies multiple representations encoding  content content  strategy strategy  performance References: Blair & Burton, 1987; Brown, 1995, 1997, 2002, in press; Burton & Blair, 1991; Conrad et al, 1998, 2003; Menon, 1993.

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 47 encoding factors contents effort bias accuracy strategy

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 48 Multiple Strategy Perspective Encoding factors determine task-relevant contents of memory. Contents of memory restrict strategy selection. Strategy selection and response bias often related.

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 49 An Empirically Derived Taxonomy of Frequency Estimation Strategies

Psyco 350 Lec #14– Slide 50 Relating Encoding, content, strategy & Performance encodingcontentStrategyperformance ‘memorable’ events ‘on-target’ instances on-target enumeration  RT  freq  underestimation regularityrate rate retrieval  fast, flat RT  heaping intenttally tally retrieval  fast, flat RT  accurate(?) frequent presentation vague quantifier impression retrieval  fast, flat RT  overestimation indistinct instances fluency memory assessment  fast, flat RT  overestimation encoding/test mismatch ‘off-target’ instances off-target enumeration  SLOW, flat RT  regressive estimates