Languages and genes: recent work and emerging results Aussois: September 2005 The formation of East Asian Language families: a partial scenario. L. Sagart 1, with the collaboration of Alicia Sanchez-Mazas 2, Estella 'Sim' Poloni 2 and Barbara Arredi 2,3 1 CNRS, Paris; 2 Dept. of Anthropology and Ecology, University of Geneva; 3 Dept. of Histology, Microbiology and Medical Biotechnologies, University of Padova EUROPEAN SCIENCE FOUNDATION EUROCORES (EUROpean Science Foundation COllaborative RESearch) Programme Workshop organized with the support of the SHS department of CNRS

This presentation ► Reflects my ideas on East Asian language history ► Makes crucial use of results obtained within OHLL project "Languages and Genes in East Asia". ► Project members:  E. 'Sim' Poloni (co-director). U. of Geneva.  A. Sanchez-Mazas. U. of Geneva.  G. Jacques. U. of Paris 5.  recent collaborator: B. Arredi. U. of Padova; U. of Geneva

Main productions of our group: Sanchez-Mazas, A., E. S. Poloni, G. Jacques and L. Sagart (2005) HLA genetic diversity and linguistic variation in East Asia. In: L. Sagart, R. Blench, A. Sanchez-Mazas (eds): The peopling of East Asia: putting together archaeology, linguistics and genetics Londres: RoutledgeCurzon. Poloni, E. S., A. Sanchez-Mazas, G. Jacques, L. Sagart (2005) Comparing linguistic and genetic relationships among east asian populations: a study of the Rh and GM polymorphisms. In: L. Sagart, R. Blench, A. Sanchez-Mazas (eds): The peopling of East Asia: putting together archaeology, linguistics and genetics, Londres: RoutledgeCurzon.

MDS of genetic distances among 102 populations samples computed on GM frequency distributions (stress value 0.085) source: Poloni, E. S., A. Sanchez-Mazas, G. Jacques, L. Sagart (2005) Comparing linguistic and genetic relationships among east asian populations: a study of the Rh and GM polymorphisms. In: L. Sagart, R. Blench, A. Sanchez-Mazas (eds): The peopling of East Asia: putting together archaeology, linguistics and genetics, Londres: RoutledgeCurzon. Northern Tibeto-Burman (Tibetan) Northern Mandarin samples Southern Chinese (southwestern Mandarin and other southern dialects), southern Tibeto-Burman (Bodo-Garo, Kuki-Chin, Kiranti, Loloish, Bai, Tujia samples) Wu and southwestern Mandarin samples

A genetic boundary across Sino-Tibetan SAMOVA analysis of GM data ► Samova: Dupanloup, I., Schneider, S., Excoffier, L. (2002) A simulated annealing approach to define the genetic structure of populations. Molecular Ecology 11(12): ► GM data ► 118 East Asian populations

GM: SAMOVA on 118 population samples (search for genetic differentiation between geographic groups) Altaic Austronesian Austro-Asiatic Hmong-Mien Japanese-Ainu Tai-Kadai Korean Sino-Tibetan Thanks to Estella ‘Sim’ Poloni !

GM: SAMOVA on 118 population samples (search for genetic differentiation between geographic groups) Altaic Austronesian Austro-Asiatic Hmong-Mien Japanese-Ainu Tai-Kadai Korean Sino-Tibetan Thanks to Estella ‘Sim’ Poloni !

GM: SAMOVA on 118 population samples (search for genetic differentiation between geographic groups) genetic boundary Altaic Austronesian Austro-Asiatic Hmong-Mien Japanese-Ainu Tai-Kadai Korean Sino-Tibetan Thanks to Estella ‘Sim’ Poloni !

GM: SAMOVA on 118 population samples (search for genetic differentiation between geographic groups) genetic boundary  separation into 2 groups:F CT = 24.6% (P < 0.001) Altaic Austronesian Austro-Asiatic Hmong-Mien Japanese-Ainu Tai-Kadai Korean Sino-Tibetan Thanks to Estella ‘Sim’ Poloni !

Boundary is stable ► whether or not Altaic populations are included; ► regardless of number of output groups asked for (2, 3, 4, 5).

This boundary ► corresponds closely to the linguistic boundary between N and SW/SE Mandarin ► shown by Zavjalova (1983) to follow the political boundary between the Jin (Djurchet, Altaic-speaking) and southern Song (Chinese) territories in the 12th-13th centuries CE and later (14th century) between the Yuan (Mongolian-speaking) and southern Song.

ANOVAs on GM data ► F CT : Proportion of the total genetic variation (here GM) that is due to differences between East Asian groups compared 2 by 2. ► 128 East Asian populations ► Linguistically and geographically defined groups as in preceding MDS

North–south differentiation Thanks to Alicia Sanchez-Mazas!

Thanks to Alicia Sanchez-Mazas! Northern ST closer to Altaic and Japanese/Korean than to southern ST

Tai-Kadai Altaics Japanese Koreans Tibeto-Burmans N Han N Taiwan Austronesians East coast Centre and west coast MDS GM 143 populations (stress = 0.108) Thanks to Alicia Sanchez-Mazas !

closeness of northern ST and Altaic or Japanese-Korean looked at from other systems: ► HVS1 (mtDNA) ► Y chromosome SNPs ► HLA-DRB1

Taiwan Austronesians mostly: Altaics, Japanese Koreans Tibeto-Burmans N Han N mostly: Tai-Kadai and Hmong-Mien MDS HVS1 (mtDNA) 115 populations (stress = 0.183) Thanks to Estella ‘Sim’ Poloni !

Thanks to Barbara Arredi ! mostly: Altaics Japanese, Koreans Tai-Kadai MDS Y chromosome SNPs 76 populations (stress = 0.218)

MDS analysis of 27 East Asian populations based on the HLA-DRB1 polymorphism Source: Sanchez-Mazas et al. (2005), p. 279 Northern Chinese Southern Chinese S=0.291

HLA-DRB1 ► In the northern Chinese group:  Guanxian undifferentiated from Manchu  Urumqi Chinese undifferentiated from Manchu,  Urumqi Chinese undifferentiated from Khalk (Mongol)  Urumqi Chinese undifferentiated from Khazak (Turkic) (F ST among populations tested by 10,000 random permutations) Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, p.c. Sept 15, 2005

Proximity of southern ST to other southern groups ► Long observed (Cavalli-Sforza for Chinese) ► Usual explanation:  ST homeland is in northern China  Northern Chinese/TB best reflects original ST  Southern Chinese has diverged because of ‘Austric’ gene flow following colonization of south China, c BP.

Problems for the ‘usual’ interpretation: 1. Northern ST closer to Altaic than to southern ST: strange. 2. Most of the ST linguistic diversity is in the southern group.

Gene flow from Austric ? ► L. Reid (2005), principal proponent of ‘Austric’ theory: “With the accumulation of evidence presented by Sagart in this volume and elsewhere, that Austronesian can also be shown to be genetically related to the Sino-Tibetan family of languages (…) the possibility exists that the relationship between Austroasiatic and Austronesian is more remote than earlier considered. The concept of Austric as a language family may eventually need to be abandoned in favour of a wider language family, which can be shown to include both AN and AA language families, but not necessarily as sisters of a common ancestor” Source: Reid, L. (2005) The current status of Austric. In: L.Sagart, R. Blench and A. Sanchez-Mazas (eds.) The Peopling of East Asia, pp London: RoutledgeCurzon.

Is closeness to Altaic an original characteristic of ST populations ? Reasons for thinking that northern Chinese closeness to Altaic is not original

Exhibit 1: ancient mtDNA study of 2 Shandong populations Two early Shandong populations (c BP; c BP) closer to modern southern Chinese than to modern northern Chinese, incl. Shandong. Yong-Gang Yao, Qing-Peng Kong, Xiao-Yong Man, Hans-Jürgen Bandelt, and Ya-Ping Zhang (2003) Reconstruction of the evolutionary history of China: A caveat about inferences drawn from Ancient DNA, Mol Biol Evol 20(2):

Exhibit 2: episodes of Altaic domination of N. China ► Sixteen Kingdoms (Toba: Early Mongolians): CE ► Northern Wei dynasty (Xianbei: early Mongolian) : CE ► Liao dynasty (Khitan: Tungusic ?): CE ► Jin dynasty (Jurchet: early Manchu ?): CE ► Yuan dynasty (Mongol): CE ► Qing dynasty (Manchu): CE

Results on N. Chinese populations: ► very high wartime mortality of Chinese populations in the north ► large-scale N. Chinese migrations to south China ► settling of N. China by Altaic-speaking populations ► Settled Altaic populations and ruling class become bilingual in Chinese, then shift to Chinese

consequences of language shift: Altaic substratum in northern Mandarin ► in grammar  Hashimoto 1984 (higher incidence of verb-final patterns in n. Mandarin) ► in pronunciation  Cheng 2002 (in N. Mandarin, elimination of vowel sequences violating Altaic vowel harmony)

Evidence for an Altaic substratum in northern TB  Gong 2002 (Altaic case endings in TB languages, especially northern: Tibetan, Tangut)

Conclusions for part I ► convergence of:  Historical evidence  Linguistic evidence  Ancient DNA evidence ► suggests that Northern ST populations  genetically close to Altaic because of massive Altaic gene flow in past 2000 years ► Southern ST  Has most of the ST linguistic diversity  Is Closer to ‘original ST’

Part II: focus on the south ► proximity between southern ST and  Austroasiatic  Hmong-Mien  Austronesian (Taiwan)  Tai-Kadai manifested for the GM system in low Fct values between them:

Thanks to Alicia Sanchez-Mazas! proximity between ST and AA, TK, AN, Hm-M

in short: southern Sino-Tibetans Taiwan Austronesians Tai-Kadais less reliably Austroasiatics and Hmong-Miens show: ► significant but low group-to-group differentiations

Sino-Tibetan-Austronesian linguistic theory Sagart, L. (2005) Sino-Tibetan-Austronesian: an updated and improved argument. In L. Sagart, R. Blench and A. Sanchez-Mazas (eds) The peopling of East Asia: Putting together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics London: RoutledgeCurzon. Sino-TibetanAustronesian Proto-Sino-Tibetan-Austronesian: c BP, NE China

sound correspondences general case

Sound correspondences

The Swadesh 100-word list (in green: 13 words shared by Chinese and PAN) I, you (sg.), we, this, that, who, what, not, all, many, one, two, big, long, small, woman, man, human (n), fish, bird, dog, louse, tree, seed, leaf, root, bark (of tree), skin, flesh, blood, bone, fat (n.), egg, horn, tail, feather, hair (of head), head, ear, eye, nose, mouth, tongue, tooth, claw, foot, knee, hand, neck, belly, breast(s), heart, liver, drink, eat, bite, hear, see, know, sleep (vb.), die, kill, swim, fly (vb.), walk, come, lie (recline), sit, stand, give, say, sun, moon, star, water, rain (n.), stone, sand, earth, cloud, smoke, fire, ash(es), burn (intr.), path, mountain, red, green, yellow, white, black, night, hot, cold, full, new, good, round, dry, name.

13 basic vocabulary items shared by Old Chinese and PAN

Shared Morphology 1 prefix s- 'valency increaser' ► Austronesian: Atayal  m ‑ NuNu/ 'to be afraid'  s ‑ NuNu/ 'to frighten' ► Old Chinese  順 * b m ‑ lun ‑ s ‘ to be pliant, obedient ’  馴 * b s ‑ m-lun ‘ to tame' ► Tibetan  'bar 'to burn, catch fire, be ignited'  s-bar 'to light, to kindle, to inflame'

► Proto-Austronesian:  pa-Cay 'to kill' (pa- causative)  ma-Cay 'to die, dead' ► Old Chinese  夾 a krep ‘to press between’  狹 a N-krep ‘narrow’ ► TB: Gyarong  k Œ ‑ phŒk ‘to split’  k « ‑ mbŒk ‘to be rent’ Shared Morphology 2 prefix m-/N- 'intransitive'

Shared morphology 3: -n nominalizer of verbs ► Tibetan  za-ba 'to eat'  za-n 'food, pap, porridge' ► Austronesian: Paiwan  kan 'eat'  kan-en ‘food’

Formation of the STAN phylum ► Bellwood/Renfrew farming/language hypothesis ► The STAN phylum as a farming expansion based on rice and foxtail millet (Setaria italica)

A field of Setaria italica in n. China (courtesy: Tracey Lu)

Neolithic transition(s) in N. China Illustration from Lu 2005, modified

Bellwood's recent hypothesis on East Asia 1. Only one neolithic transition in east Asia: domestication of rice, c. 10,000 BP; 2. followed by population expansion 3. The northernmost farmers obliged to domesticate a second cereal: Setaria italica, c BP [in Sagart, Blench and Sanchez-Mazas (eds) The Peopling of East Asia London: RoutledgeCurzon]

Distribution of Setaria Italica (foxtail millet) c BP (source: Lu 2005, slightly mo'd.)

Distribution of millet cultivation c BP: ► North China (nuclear area) ► Tibet ► Taiwan Precisely the area of Sino-Tibetan-Austronesian

STAN cereal-related terms

Tai-Kadai as a branch of Austronesian Sagart, L. (2004) The higher phylogeny of Austronesian and the position of Tai-Kadai. Oceanic Linguistics 43,2:

Sagart's phylogeny for STAN Old additive expression meaning '5+2' is reduced to pitu 'seven ' New word for 'six': enem; New word for 'year': kawaS Additive expressions meaning '5+3' and '5+4' reduced to new words walu 'eight' and Siwa 'nine' New word for 'thou'; new word for 'bird' New word for 'ten' New morphological process Pang-V > instrumental noun

Proposed: ► Belwood's northern farmers, c BP  spoke proto-sino-tibetan-austronesian  In north-eastern China (Yellow Valley, Huai Valley)  Had millet, rice, chickens;  Expanded: ► An Eastern branch reached the eastern seaboard c BP and eventually Taiwan c BP, Philippines 4000 BP, N; Vietnam 4000 BP (Tai-Kadai) ► The stay-at-homes evolved into the ST family, expanding westward, reaching Tibet in the 6th mill. BP

L’Asie orientale (Encarta 2000) domestication of Setaria italica, c BP: Cishan-Peiligang, Jiahu cultures 1 3 Yangshao culture: Proto-Sino- Tibetan, c BP 2 Beixin-Dawenkou: pre- austronesian culture, c BP 4 W. Taiwan, Dapenkeng culture 5500 BP Karuo, Tibet c BP expansion of Sino-Tibetan-Austronesian Setaria farmers Out of Taiwan I: Malayo- Polynesian, c BP Out of Taiwan II: Tai-Kadai, c BP

Markers for the southward coastal expansion of the pre-Austronesians: 1. grains of Setaria italica in archeaological contexts:  Dawenkou culture, c BP  Taiwan west coast, c BP

carbonized grains of Setaria from Tainan, Taiwan c BP source: Tsang, Cheng-hwa (2005) Recent discoveries at a Tapenkeng culture site in Taiwan: implications for the problem of Austronesian origins. In L. Sagart, R. Blench and A. Sanchez- Mazas (eds) The peopling of East Asia: Putting together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics. London: RoutledgeCurzon.

Markers for the southward coastal expansion of the pre-Austronesians: 2. Tooth evulsion: ritual extraction of upper lateral incisors; in boys and girls, in adolescence:  Dawenkou culture ca BP  Taiwan west coast ca BP  Nowhere else at those early dates

tooth evulsion

A Y-chromosome mutation with a correlated distribution: The M119 mutation (and corresponding O1 haplotype) is carried by many more individuals in the Eastern branch of STAN than elsewhere:

M119 Highest frequency on the Eastern Chinese seaboard:  speakers of Chinese dialects  Taiwan Austronesians  Tai-Kadais (really Austronesians) Low frequency among  Tibeto-Burmans  Altaic  Japanese-Korean

O1-M119 in East Asia Thanks to Estella ‘Sim’ Poloni !

O1-M119 among non-ST Thanks to Estella ‘Sim’ Poloni !

O1-M119 among ST Thanks to Estella ‘Sim’ Poloni !

Conclusions ► northern ST is linguistically and genetically "altaicized" ► southern ST is 'original ST' ► southern ST genetically close to southern groups: Austronesian, Tai-Kadai, Hmong-Mien, Austroasiatic ► But results for Hmong-Mien and Austroasiatic need to be confirmed on a larger number of population samples ► Genetic data do not contradict Sino-Austronesian theory in a major way

Thank you for your attention This presentation will be posted on the conference website