Cognitive Processes in Adulthood

Perspectives Organismic: Piaget Organismic: Piaget –formal operations: abstractions –Post-formal operations Problem finding Problem finding Dialectical reasoning Dialectical reasoning Mechanistic: Social learning Mechanistic: Social learning Contextual: Vygotsky – interactions Contextual: Vygotsky – interactions Psychometric: intelligence Psychometric: intelligence

Intelligence What is it? What is it? –inherited and acquired –no general definition Intelligent Behaviour Intelligent Behaviour –goal-oriented (conscious, deliberate) –adaptive (problem solving)

Multidimensional Diverse Diverse Cattell’s “g” Cattell’s “g” –Whatever intelligence tests measure: “IQ” Thurstone: seven primary mental abilities Thurstone: seven primary mental abilities Sternberg: cognitive approach Sternberg: cognitive approach –analytic (academic) –practical (problem solving) –creative

Cattell & Horn: two “competencies” Fluid Intelligence: flexible reasoning Fluid Intelligence: flexible reasoning –Basic mental abilities –E.g., abstract thinking, speed of thinking, problem solving Crystallized intelligence: facts Crystallized intelligence: facts –Information acquired from education and experience

Gardner: multiple intelligences Logical/math Logical/math Linguistic Linguistic Visual/spatial Visual/spatial Musical Musical Body/kinesthetic Body/kinesthetic Interpersonal Interpersonal Intrapersonal Intrapersonal

Intelligence and Aging Stereotype: Stereotype: intellectual activity peaks at years intellectual activity peaks at years declines steadily with age declines steadily with age

Developmental Research Shows: most intellectual abilities stable throughout early and middle adulthood most intellectual abilities stable throughout early and middle adulthood cohort differences = powerful influence on intelligence differences cohort differences = powerful influence on intelligence differences many factors affect intellectual functioning: education, health, mental well-being many factors affect intellectual functioning: education, health, mental well-being

Growth, Stability, or Decline? Decrementalist vs. Decrementalist vs. Continued Potential views Continued Potential views

Psychometric Perspective Focus on: Focus on: measuring the mind measuring the mind individual differences individual differences description, not explanation description, not explanation

Intelligence Testing Francis Galton Francis Galton Cattell, Binet Cattell, Binet Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales

Verbal (language, knowledge) Verbal (language, knowledge) Performance (manipulate info. to solve problems) Performance (manipulate info. to solve problems) Greater decline in performance than verbal tests over age Greater decline in performance than verbal tests over age

Fluid vs. Crystallized Decline in fluid, stable/increase in crystallized Decline in fluid, stable/increase in crystallized

Seattle Longitudinal Study (Warner Schaie, 1994) 5,000 participants (representative) 5,000 participants (representative) Studied six times, at 7-year intervals Studied six times, at 7-year intervals Several cohorts (21-71 years) Several cohorts (21-71 years) Began in 1956, latest testing in 1992 Began in 1956, latest testing in 1992

Charted course of 6 primary mental abilities (PMAT) Charted course of 6 primary mental abilities (PMAT) –inductive reasoning –numeric ability –verbal ability –spatial orientation –verbal memory –perceptual speed

Cross-Sectional Results Much individual variability Much individual variability Maintenance/increase age 50 Maintenance/increase age 50 Decline in performance beyond 50 yrs. Decline in performance beyond 50 yrs. Verbal memory best maintained Verbal memory best maintained Perceptual speed most reduced Perceptual speed most reduced

Longitudinal Results cohort differences cohort differences no change/increase in performance across age no change/increase in performance across age

Performance of total sample at each measurement interval Performance of total sample at each measurement interval –peak at midlife –increasing decline with age Cohort Effects (over 28 years) Cohort Effects (over 28 years) –Break data down by birth date –Positive Cohort Trends –Later-born perform better than earlier- born (in general)

General Conclusions about Age-Effects Large individual differences in degree, rate, and pattern of change with age Large individual differences in degree, rate, and pattern of change with age Different aspects of intelligence follow different patterns of change with time (e.g., crystallized vs. fluid intelligence) Different aspects of intelligence follow different patterns of change with time (e.g., crystallized vs. fluid intelligence)

Cohort trends show influence of socio- historical context on cognitive development Cohort trends show influence of socio- historical context on cognitive development In healthy adults, cognitive decline is small, at least until very late adulthood In healthy adults, cognitive decline is small, at least until very late adulthood Trends support combination of decrement and continued-potential Trends support combination of decrement and continued-potential

Factors Influencing Intellectual Performance in Later Life Health Health –normal vs. superior health (Botwinick & Birren, 1963) –superior > normal on WAIS –slight deviations from optimal health affect intelligence

Hypertension (Wilkie et al., 1971) Hypertension (Wilkie et al., 1971) –WAIS administered twice over 10 years (Time 1: years) –Largest decline for those with high blood pressure at first testing

Sensory changes: e.g., hearing Loss Sensory changes: e.g., hearing Loss –correlates negatively with intelligence (e.g., Baltes et al., 1997) –greater loss – poorer performance (esp. on information, vocabulary tests) –Why?

Organic Brain Syndrome (institutionalized with dementia) Organic Brain Syndrome (institutionalized with dementia) –decline greater than in healthy

Education (Birren & Morrison, 1961) (Birren & Morrison, 1961) Number of years correlated with intellectual performance in later life Number of years correlated with intellectual performance in later life “General Intelligence” related to years of education (50% of variance), and not strongly related to age (10% of variance) “General Intelligence” related to years of education (50% of variance), and not strongly related to age (10% of variance)

Initial Level of Ability No differential effects on rate of intellectual decline with age No differential effects on rate of intellectual decline with age Relative levels maintained across lifespan Relative levels maintained across lifespan