Political Organization and the Maintenance of Order

anthropology’s interest in power and maintenance of order political organization refers to the way power is distributed and embedded in societies who has power how does power differ from authority how is power organized and administered

distinction between power and authority power: ability to bring about results power may be informal and based on force coercive power versus persuasive power Symbolic power based on positive expectations of those who accede to it authority is the socially recognized right to exert power legitimacy - the socially recognized right to hold, use, and allocate power

Eric Wolf: 4 Modalities of Power Potency, capability, charisma (individual) Ability of person to impose its will in social action upon another Tactical or organizational power -- The instrumentalities through which individuals or groups direct or circumscribe the actions of others Structural power – power that organizes and orchestrates the settings themselves & that specifies the direction & distribution of energy flows

political organization: an early pre-occupation of anthropologists British India and Africa: how are people ruled without a state Victorian Europe and the appearance of the modern nation-state idea of acephalous societies without heads

early evolutionary scheme matched with subsistence strategies band, tribe, chiefdom, state (Elman Service) foragers, horticulturalists, agriculturalists, industrialists still see different types of political organization as related to subsistence strategy population density and heterogeneity degree of hierarchy and social stratification presence of bounded territory degree of formalization of rule

Band, Tribe, Chiefdom, State

the band small group of politically independent, though related, households all social relationships based on kinship least complex form of political organization perhaps the oldest form as well associated with foraging forms of subsistence decisions made through consensus disgruntled leave no fixed leadership, only informal recognition of prowess typically male, but females have power as well most successful hunter and most senior woman

The Tribe tribal system consists of separate bands or villages integrated through lineages, clans, age grades, or other associations cross-cutting kinship and territory less autonomy for greater security associated with farming or herding subsistence strategies greater food production greater population density

The tribe consists of one or more autonomous communities which may then form alliances may range across a broad territory social stratification related to kinship and cross-cutting associations needs for alliance defense or raiding pooling of resources capitalize on a windfall often return to autonomous communities

The tribe informal leadership no centralized leadership typically someone respected for wisdom or prowess – charisma & “big men” group decisions by consensus leaders may influence through oratory decisions enforced through withdrawal of cooperation gossip criticism beliefs that anti-social actions cause disease

The tribe leaders of localized descent groups or a territorial group authority is personal not elected, no formal office status result of personal behavior status often achieved through giving away many wives extended kin networks Big Women in Vanatinai (Maria Lepowsky) give more mortuary feasts may gain power as sorcerers, healers, gardeners

kinship organization in tribes clan may be the organizing unit and seat of political authority elders of clan may form council segmentary lineage system – The Nuer of East Africa patrilineal clans maximal lineage, major, minor, minimal lingeage smallest group defined by one great grandfather all segments equal and no leadership above minimal or primary segments form alliances to face threats

The Lineage: Descent Groups as Political Organization Lineal Kin - ancestors or descendants Collateral Kin - sibling branches

Patrilineage: Male Ego

Patrilineage: Female Ego

Matrilineal and Patrilineal Kin

Tribe: segmentary lineage system

Tribes and Lineages maximal lineages (tribes) major lineages (families) minor lineages (fathers' houses) minimal lineages (extended patrilocal households)

“Headless” (uncentralized) Political organization

Segmentray lineage system

Kinship Centered Political Organization

Us and Them Bedouin proverb: I against my brother; I and my brother against our cousin; I, my brother and our cousin against the neighbors; all of us against the foreigners based on complementary or balanced opposition a model for ethnicity?

other examples of tribal organization age-grade organization association organization Cree military societies and warriors’ clubs

AGE AS A FORM OF SOCIAL DIVISION AGE-SETS, AGE GRADES, AGE MATES differentiation of social role based on age, commonly found in small-scale societies of North America and tribal groups of East Africa Age sets are a type of sodality Age grades may be marked by changes in biological state, such as puberty Or by socially recognized status changes such as marriage and the birth of a child Persons of junior grade may defer to those of more senior grade who in turn teach, test, or lead their juniors

“KENYA” uit de serie “BEST OF EAST AFRICA” ( AVP©2003)

Masai Age Sets (E. Africa pastoralists) rigid system of age-sets apply primarily to men; women automatically become members of the age-set of their husbands groups of the same age (give or take five years or so) are initiated into adult life during the same period The age-set is a permanent grouping lasts throughout the life of its members a hierarchy of grades junior warriors, senior warriors junior elders (sometimes classed as senior warriors), and senior elders the ones who make decisions affecting the whole tribe

tribal organization term used differently than in popular usage not a catch-all for anyone not living in a state or those considered to be inferior tribalism = chaotic political situation also not equivalent to usage by some aboriginal groups today

chiefdom a regional polity in which one or more local groups are organized under a single ruling individual – the chief – who is at the head of a ranked hierarchy of people

The Chief Divine king – macrocosm and microcosm status determined by closeness to chief office of chief often hereditary passing to son or to sister’s son also based on talents often conceived as a semi-sacred position may amass personal wealth to add to power

Nana Osei Tutu II The King of Ashanti Photo credit: G. F Nana Osei Tutu II The King of Ashanti Photo credit: G. F. Kojo Arthur Centre for Indigenous Knowledge Systems Copyright© PT Sangga Sarana Persada, 1997-2000 Designed by Sangga Web Team

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chiefdom a true authority figure with a formal office can distribute resources associated with redistributive economies chief controls surpluses and labour may collect taxes or tribute may recruit labour for community projects irrigation, a temple, a palace can conscript for military recognized hierarchy linked to chief tend to be unstable may form confederacies Iroquois League of Five Nation, Algonquin Confederacy

chiefdom Rank society do not have unequal access to economic resources or to power, but they do contain social groups having unequal access to prestige unequal access to prestige often reflected in position of chief to which only some members of a specified group in the society can succeed Ascribed status

Band & tribe vs. chiefdom in band and tribal societies competitive displays & conspicuous consumption by individuals disappears & anyone foolish enough to boast how great he is gets accused of witchcraft & is stoned to death reciprocity predominates, not redistribution

Bands and Tribes: Uncentralized political systems include: bands and tribes associated with: subsistence level economies such as foraging small, homogeneous populations little social stratification relatively autonomous groups often relatively mobile without strict territorial boundaries no formal leader or organization beyond kinship

Chiefdom & State: Centralized political systems include: chiefdoms and states associated with: intensive agricultural or industrialization technology becomes more complicated labour specialization increases large, diverse population less mobility opportunity for control of resources appears appearance of coercive force male leaders more frequent political authority is concentrated in a single individual (chiefdoms) or a body of individuals (the state)

the state the most formal of political organizations and is one of the hallmarks of civilization political power is centralized in a government which may LEGITIMATELY use force to regulate the affairs of its citizens Weber’s monopoly on the legitimate use of force

The state: associated with -- increased food production (agriculture and industry) irrigation and transformation of landscape increased population fixed territory developed market system appearance of cities developed urban sector

The state: associated with -- appearance of bureaucracy military usually an official religion delegation of authority to maintain order within and without its borders right to control information authority is formal and impersonal Holding office and the person

The state: associated with -- differentiation in population appears – social stratification appearance of ethnicity permanent, heritable inequality slaves, castes and classes social conflict increases

original states appeared 5000 years ago primary states are agricultural theories about their formation military needs, irrigation needs, environmental conditions

why the state? from band to state more wealth more people more sedentism more inequality and ranking less reliance on kinship more internal and external conflict increased power and responsibility to leaders increased burden to citizens to support political organization increased use of formal, legal structures for adjudication

Band, Tribe, Chiefdom, State sequence can be replaced with contrast between uncentralized and centralized political systems Replace evolutionary perspective with: ethnographic present historical perspective

The Nation (-State) modern nation-state a more recent phenomenon most have appeared since the end of WWII communities of people who see themselves as “one people” on the basis of common ancestry, history, society, institutions, ideology, language, territory, and (often) religion anthropology questions this reality while recognizing the power of the idea differences are suppressed in modern nation-states

NATION & NATIONALITY nation was once a term that referred to tribe, indigenous people, or ethnic group - collectivity sharing single language, religion, history, territory, ancestry, kinship (Herder & volk) nation comes to mean the state = a country, but a sociopolitical form, the modern state composed of diverse ethnic groups

Nation as “Imagined Community” "it is imagined because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion" (Anderson p.15)

imagined community A community that “imagines” itself No possibility of face-to-face communication Moments of simultaneity Monuments and memorials Anthropology questions this reality while recognizing the power of the idea Differences are marked and suppressed in modern nation-states A form of amnesia?

The Nation: Key Points based upon sentiments of prestige which extend deep into the masses of political structures (located in the field of politics) Those groups who hold the power to steer common conduct within a polity will most strongly instill themselves with this ideal fervor of power prestige Those who think of themselves as being specific partners of a specific culture diffused among members of the polity

The State, The Nation, and Ethnicity 181 states but 5000 nations? idea that nation and state coincide is rare The appearance of ethnicity and the rise of the nation-state (Nash) nation-state responsible for the rise and definition of social entities called ethnic groups - last 500 years grew out of the wreck of empires, breakups of civilizations - disruptions of mechanic societies within borders of nation-state - social and cultural diversity

Political Organization and Ethnicity ethnicity is founded upon structural inequities among dissimilar groups into a single political entity based on cultural differences & similarities perceived as shared identification with & feeling a part of an ethnic group & exclusion from certain other groups because of this affiliation

Assimilation & Nation Building increase in shared characteristics among social groups and an increasing social homogeneity are a key to nation building erasure of differences (in ethnicity, cognitive orientations, patterns of social interactions, etc.) for the creation of a cohesive, productive, just and affluent society various communication media assume an important role in providing information that facilitates key transformations in individuals and communities

Pluri-Ethnic States Pluralist model treats groups as permanent and enduring Group rights Cosmopolitan model that accepts shifting boundaries, multiple affiliations, hybrid identities Individual rights Accommodation of immigrant ethnicity Minority nationalism – nations within (indigenous peoples and Québécois) Stateless nations, ethnic nationalism vs. indigenous groups Nations within – groups that formed complete and functioning societies on their historic homeland before being incorporated into a larger state Typically been involuntary – colonization, conquest, etc.

Ethnic Conflict Assimilation Apartheid Diaspora Ethnocide Genocide

indigeneity Nations within – groups that formed complete and functioning societies on their historic homeland before being incorporated into a larger state Typically been involuntary – colonization, conquest, etc. Indigenous groups around the world Drive for recognition of rights Sovereignty and self-governance

Indigenous peoples and states There is a common trend to codify and strengthen the rights of national minorities – two parallel developments One set of conventions and declarations concerning indigenous peoples and another set concerning stateless nations