Prosocial Behavior What is Prosocial Behavior? Why do We Help? When do We Help? Who is Most Likely to Help? Whom do We Help?

Why Do We Help? Evolutionary Perspectives Kinship selection Preferential helping of genetic relatives, so that genes held in common will survive. Reciprocal altruism Helping someone else can increase likelihood of survival because it increases the likelihood that this other person will help you when you need it. Cooperative group Cooperation among members of a social group could be innate (especially when the group faces an external threat)

Why Do We Help? Are humans ever truly altruistic – motivated solely by the desire to increase another’s welfare? Or are we helpful only for egoistic reasons – motivated by the desire to increase our own welfare?

Why Do We Help? Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis Prosocial behavior is motivated solely for the purpose of increasing the welfare of the recipient.

Why Do We Help? Negative State Relief Hypothesis Individuals experiencing negative emotions are motivated to help in order to achieve relief from such emotions.

Why Do We Help? Perceive other needs help Personal distress Egoistic Reduction of own distress Empathic concern Altruistic Reduction of other’s distress Adopt other’s perspective yes no Emotional response Type of Motive Satisfaction of motive Based on Bateson, 1991

Why Do We Help? Empathic-Joy Hypothesis Helping in response to empathy is motivated neither by a selfless concern for the welfare of others, nor by the reduction of personal distress, but rather by the joy one experiences when observing that another person’s needs have been met.

Percentage of participants who helped as a function of empathy and escape conditions (based on Batson et al., 1981)

Results of Batson et al’s (1983) study comparing distressed feelings and ease of victim’s escape on the probability of giving help

When Do We Help? Situational Influences Bystander Effect The presence of others can reduce the likelihood that any one individual will offer help. The greater the number of witnesses, the less likely it is that help will be given.

Five Steps to Helping In An Emergency (Latane & Darley (1970) Notice that something is happening Interpret event As an emergency Take responsibility For providing help Know how to help Be able to implement decision Provide no help no yes

When Do We Help? (cont.) Pluralistic ignorance The state in which people mistakenly believe that their own thoughts and feelings are different from those of others, even though everyone’s behaviour is the same. (Interpretation)

When Do We Help? (cont.) Diffusion of Responsibility The belief that others will or should take the responsibility for providing assistance to a person in need. (Taking Responsibility).

When Do We Help? (cont.) Audience inhibition Reluctance to help for fear of making a bad impression on observers.

Percentage of participants offering help as a function of perceived time pressure

LOWHIGH Costs for Direct Help Costs for no help to victim HIGH LOW Direct Help Indirect help or excuses to enable escaping situation Variable: Depends on (a)personality and (b)perceived norms Leaving the scene, ignoring, denial

Who is Most Likely to Help? Altruistic Personality Empathy and Moral Reasoning Moods and Doing Good Gender and Good Deeds

Amount of helping as a function of moral reasoning and empathy levels (Miller et al., 1996)

Whom do We Help? Physical Attractiveness Attribution of Responsibility Similarity and Closeness to Person in Need