Academic Writing for FYP Students: Applied Languages The Writing Centre, UL www.ul.ie/rwc Academic Writing for FYP Students: Applied Languages Seminar 2 Íde O’Sullivan, Lawrence Cleary Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Plan of Seminars Seminars: Weeks 5, 6, 7 Wednesdays 2–3 pm A1-052 One-to-One Sessions: visit our website (www.ul.ie/rwc) to check out our tutors and make an appointment Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Plan of seminars Seminar 1 (Week 5): Getting started Layout/presentation/structure Referencing Seminar 2 (Week 6): Writing an effective abstract, introduction and conclusion Developing and sustaining an argument Seminar 3 (Week 7): Academic writing style Editing and proof reading Regional Writing Centre

Writing an effective abstract What is an abstract? Types of abstracts Why are abstracts important? What should I include in the abstract? What should I not include? Qualities of a good abstract Style How to write an abstract? Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre What is an abstract? Term often interchanged with summary It is a brief, factual account of the content of a report or article Highlights ‘the major points covered, concisely describes the content and scope of the writing, and reviews the writing’s content in abbreviated form’ (Literary Education Online: Writing Abstracts) Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Types of abstracts Descriptive abstract Informative abstract Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Descriptive abstract Often used in electronic databases to facilitate keywords searches – abstracts therefore often contain key terms Indicates key areas to be covered in the report Is an extended statement of the scope or purpose of the report Articulates the paper’s organisation, rather than its content 50-75 words These “key terms” might be used by others researching in your area. Your abstract, should your report come up on a key word search, would indicate to the researcher the applicability of your research to their investigation. Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Descriptive abstract Example: “This article examines the economic, political and social forces at work in the Georgia wheat-producing region prior to the break-up of the USSR. The causes for failing birth rates in Georgia are explored, and the links between this problem and the collapse of the Soviet system are analysed”. Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Descriptive abstract Written in present tense Lists topics but does not explain what article says about the topics Does not give results, conclusions or recommendations Reader needs to find more by reading the text Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Informative abstract Kirkman (1992) believes this type is best and more useful to readers in most circumstances Summarises the entire report Gives the reader an overview of the facts that will be laid out in detail in the paper itself Varies in length (200 – 300 words) Is rarely longer than one page and should never exceed 10% of the length of the entire report University Writing Center, George Mason University) Regional Writing Centre

Why are abstracts important? They give the reader the idea of what the report / article contains. They are needed for keyword searches in electronic databases. Regional Writing Centre

What should I include in the abstract? A clear concise summary of the entire report (not more than one page in length) The aim of the study and a brief justification for the investigation into the problem A brief description of how the problem was approached and a justification for that approach A summary of the outcomes and whether they confirm those that had been initially anticipated The main results, conclusions and recommendations Regional Writing Centre

What should I not include? Lengthy historical summaries and background information Personal judgements: “I feel this thesis does an excellent job of…” Overstatements of the results: “This thesis proves…” Lengthy examples and supporting details “[…] extraneous information and terms which don’t support the content” (Consortium for International Earth Science Information Network) Regional Writing Centre

Qualities of a good abstract Provide essential message (thesis, findings, important names, conclusion) Non-technical style Can be used independently of the main document Does not contain personal judgments Contains one or more well developed paragraphs No new information (information not included in the report) Present tense? - Be consistent!!! Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Style Use short simple, active sentences Use correct English Suit style to readers Ensure it reads fluently – not just a collection of unconnected sentences Use transitions (however, consequently, therefore, in addition to) to link sentences and make connections clear Avoid the use of ‘I’ Hedge Regional Writing Centre

How to write an abstract? 1. Read text to be summarised – get general gist (what’s the purpose etc.) 2. Read again and mark and number important points 3. Write single sentences about each important point 4. Write a sentence to answer ‘what is this text about?’ – try to get an overview of the text’s central idea Regional Writing Centre

How to write an abstract? 5. Write first draft by combining overview sentence with important points – avoid repetition 6. Check draft against original – does anything need to be added? Is it accurate and complete? 7. Revise abstract, add transitions and aim for a coherent, unified piece of writing Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Introduction What is an introduction? Purpose of an introduction What should I put into the introduction? Summary Regional Writing Centre

What is an introduction? Usually has two parts: 1. General Statement – to attract the reader’s attention and give background info to the topic 2. Thesis Statement – to state the main topic, may indicate sub-topics, may indicate how the essay is to be organised, usually the last sentence in the introduction Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre The introduction In academic writing, an introduction, or opening, has four purposes: To introduce the topic of the essay/report To indicate the context of the conversation through background information To give some indication of the overall plan of the essay/report To catch the reader’s attention, usually by convincing the reader of its relevance. This idea of ‘context’ and ‘relevance’ is important. Too often a student tries to foist some inappropriate idea of relevance onto the reader. If a student is well versed in the discourse of her area of study, then she’ll know what is relevant to these readers. And to say something is relevant because it is important is just begging the question. Too often students use logical fallacies to foist relevance onto a reader. Advice: get involved in the discussion. Regional Writing Centre

What should I put into the introduction? Identify the domain and the topic State the problem - claim, hypothesis, or question - to be investigated Gives the problem context and significance within the research community State the objectives and outline the plan Give a detailed description of what will follow in subsequent chapters Here, domain refers to the discourse community that is conversing on this same problem, some aspect of the problem investigated, or else is somehow closely related. Regional Writing Centre

What should I put into the introduction? May mention why this research is relevant and important May elaborate on the method of inquiry, which may include a statement on the ethical aspects of the research May delineate the scope of the research May include a definition of terms Should tell reader what to expect and look for Check with your supervisor! Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Summary Introductions should be funnel shaped Begin with broad statements. Make these statements more and more specific as the writer narrows the scope of the topic and comes to the problem. Be sure that the question, hypothesis or claim is one that can be handled in a report of the length specified. This question, hypothesis or claim is your thesis statement. Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Conclusion What is a conclusion? Elements of a good conclusion What should I include in the conclusion Summary Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre What is a conclusion? ‘ A conclusion is a final result, a judgment reached by reasoning, or the summing up of an essay, book, or other piece of writing’ (ABC of Academic Writing) Regional Writing Centre

Elements of a good conclusion A conclusion should: Remind the reader of the main points of your argument Bring ‘closure to the interpretation of the data’ (Leedy, 2001: 291) Be clear Be logical Be credible Regional Writing Centre

Elements of a good conclusion Demonstrate an awareness of the limitations Discuss the implications of the findings Offer suggestions for future developments – Remember: A summary alone of what you have done is a weak conclusion End on a positive note – final sentence should be strong and positive Regional Writing Centre

What should I include in the conclusion? An introduction A summary of the investigation, the results, and the analysis A summary of the conclusions drawn from the analysis and discussion of the data / results An account of whether the research has answered the research question An assessment of whether the hypothesis or claim has been proved, disproved, or partially proved Regional Writing Centre

What should I include in the conclusion? A discussionion of the implications of the findings A demonstrable awareness of the limitations of the outcome Suggestions for future developments – Remember: A summary alone of what you have done is a weak conclusion A final, strong, positive statement Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Summary ‘Whatever kind of conclusion you decide on, it should not introduce new topics, apologize for any real or perceived failings in the paper, or merely stop or trail off. Make sure your paper has a clear sense of closure’ (Ebert et al., 1997: 129) Regional Writing Centre

Developing and sustaining an argument What is an argument? Qualities of a good argument 4 Rules for an argument Persuasion and truth in academic writing Some tips Regional Writing Centre

The thesis and the persuasive principle Your thesis is the basic stand you take, the opinion you express, the point you make about your limited subject. It’s your controlling idea, tying together and giving direction to all other separate elements in your paper. ‘Your primary purpose is to persuade the reader that your thesis is a valid one’ (Skwire, 1976: 3). When you write what’s usually called a persuasion paper, you pick a controversial issue, tell the reader what side you’re on, and try to persuade him that you’re correct. Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre What is an argument? ‘An argument is the case that someone makes, in a theory or in their writing… you give reasons for saying what you do, and present evidence to support what you say’ (Ebert et al., 1997). Arguments can be explicit or implicit. Academic arguments require justifications for their claims. Argument What do we mean by an 'argument'? The 'argument' is another word for what you do in the 'main body' of your academic paper. Argument suggests that the writer has a point of view. How do you produce a good argument? The best thing to do is read published academic papers. If you do, you find that writers spend a lot of time: advancing their own arguments by giving evidence (usually in a tentative tone) referring to their own work (sometimes called 'signposting') reviewing other authors' work (usually critically but in a polite tone) When you are aware of other authors' arguments, you will sometimes want to: counter arguments conceed a point qualify statements Arguments can also be advanced or created by: analogy asking questions posing hypothetical futures Regional Writing Centre

Advancing the argument Advance your argument by giving evidence which is valid and reliable. Evidence can consist of facts or reliable statistics, examples, educated opinions in the form of quotations, or summaries and paraphrases of ideas, from knowledgeable sources. When referring to the opinions of those you have read, be clear that you defer to the opinion, or that you object to it (be critical but polite). By considering what someone who disagrees with your position might have to say about your argument, you show that your have thought things through, and you dispose of some of the reasons your audience might have for not accepting your argument Regional Writing Centre

Advancing the argument Anticipate and address counterarguments or objections in order to strengthen your argument. Present each argument fairly and objectively. Show the reader that you have considered other sides of the argument. Leave your reader with a sense that your argument is stronger than opposing arguments. Regional Writing Centre

Persuasion and truth in academic writing Because they are argumentative, academic writing tends to be persuasive. An argument should be persuasive, but don’t sacrifice truth in favour of persuasion. Academic inquiry is a truth-seeking pursuit. facts are distinguished from opinions. relative truths are distinguished from absolute truths. The integrity of the conclusions reached in an academic essay or report is based on its honest pursuit of truth. Expository writing emphasizes the topic. It focuses on facts and ideas. Persuasive writing emphasizes the reader. This type of writing focuses on changing the reader’s mind or moving the reader to action. However, academic writing never sacrifices truth in its effort to persuade. Claims are qualified. Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Tips Leedy (2001: 183) cites Marius (1989) in highlighting 4 rules for an argument ‘state your arguments early in the game’ – present and interpret data ‘provide examples to support any assertion you make’ give the fairest possible treatment of any perspectives different from your own’ – may support or disagree with them ‘point out the weaknesses of your own argument’ – by doing this you show objectivity as a researcher. Regional Writing Centre