Obstacles to German Nationalism and Unification

Austrian Strength and Opposition Prince Metternich (The Austrian Minister of Foreign Affairs) was strongly opposed to German nationalism and was personally an major obstacle to the unification of Germany, as Austria was one of the leading German states and Austria held the Presidency of the Bund. Metternich was a conservative and therefore strongly opposed to liberal ideas. Most German nationalists at this time were also liberals.

Austrian Opposition (contd.) The Austrians were keen to keep a ‘lid’ on nationalist sentiment in the German states, as, if it was left unchecked, nationalism could lead to the disintegration of Austria’s vast empire in south-east Europe, which included people of thirteen different races and many religions. If a Kleindeutschland was created, Austria would be excluded from German affairs. It was, therefore, very much in Austrian interests to maintain the status-quo (i.e. the Bund).

Opposition from Other European Countries None of the other Great Powers of Europe (Britain, Russia, France) wished to see a strong and united Germany. This could potentially upset the balance of power in Europe. The rest of Europe was therefore happy to see Germany weak and divided. This is why, at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the 39 states had been retained. The monarchs of Britain, Austria, Denmark and Holland, (because they had land in the German state) were all represented in the Diet of the Deutscher Bund and none of these countries had interest in the development of a stronger or united Germany.

Religious Differences The northern German states were mostly Protestant, and tended to look to Protestant Prussia for leadership, help and protection. The Southern German states were mostly Catholic and tended to look to Catholic Austria for leadership, help and protection.

Opposition from the Rulers of the Individual States and Particularism The rulers of the individual states were obviously opposed to nationalism, as a unification of Germany would result in a reduction of their power and prestige. They therefore wanted to maintain the status-quo. Particularism is that many members of individual states had particular loyalty to, or identified particularly with, their individual states. In other words, people saw themselves as being Bavarian or Hanoverian, before they saw themselves as being German.

Divisions Within the Nationalists The nationalists themselves were divided on whether ‘Germany’ should be a Kleindeutschland or a Grossdeutschland. There were also divisions about whether a united Germany should be a monarchy or a republic. If it was to be a monarchy, there were divisions over who should take the throne. If there was to be a constitution, there were divisions about who would be entitled to vote and how the new German parliament would be structured.

Economic Divisions Although the German states were definitely becoming more economically united after the formation of the Zollverein, the states were economically still divided in a number of ways: Each state had its own weights measures and currency. The states in the north, especially Prussia were more industrialised and urbanised than the states in the south, which were still mostly rural with agricultural economies. Some states, were richer in natural resources than others, such as Prussia after the acquisition of the Rhineland in This meant that some states were wealthier than others.

Indifference of the Masses / Attitude of Peasants Nationalism at this time was very much limited to students, intellectuals and some of the middle classes who saw the benefits that the unification of the German states might bring. Amongst the masses, many of whom were illiterate peasants, there was little real desire for unification or real nationalist sentiment. During the 1848 Revolutions, when there were widespread nationalist demonstrations, these were motivated more by hunger, disease and unemployment. Richards – ‘ the new wine of nationalism and democracy had not yet reached the heads, or even the lips of the people ’ Mann – German peasants ‘ seldom looked up from the plough ’

Resentment towards Prussia Prussia was one of the two leading German states and was fast becoming a major economic power. In the 1820s, after the initial formation and success of the Zollverein, some of the other German states attempted to form their own customs unions. (Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Hanover, Hesse Cassel and other states) These alternative customs unions collapsed, however, and one by one most of the other states joined the Zollverein. This was inevitable, because of the economic power of Prussia, but resented by some of the smaller states.

Resentment towards Prussia The Prussians also had a militaristic outlook. Although the Prussian army was not modernised until the 1860s, there was a fear of ‘Prussification’ from the smaller German states. The southern, Catholic German states were also suspicious of Protestant Prussia and they were traditionally loyal to Catholic Austria (as demonstrated in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War)