Session 6 Diglossia Bilingualism/multilingualism Code-switching 4/16/2017 Sociolinguistics Diglossia Bilingualism/multilingualism Code-switching AL608 Sociolinguistics

Session 6 4/16/2017 What is Diglossia? Term originally introduced by Charles Ferguson (1959) (based on Marçais 1932-33) A case “where two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play” (Ferguson 1972:232). AL608 Sociolinguistics

High and Low varieties H (“High”) is the prestigious form Session 6 4/16/2017 High and Low varieties H (“High”) is the prestigious form L (“Low”) is the non-prestigious form Alternate terms: Acrolect = H Basilect = L Acrolect: The variety of speech that is closest to a standard prestige language, especially in an area in which a creole is spoken. For example, Standard Jamaican English is the acrolect where Jamaican Creole is spoken. Basilect: The variety of speech that is most remote from the prestige variety, especially in an area where a creole is spoken. For example, in Jamaica, Jamaican Creole is the basilect whereas Standard Jamaican English is the acrolect or prestige language. AL608 Sociolinguistics

Each variety has distinct functions Session 6 4/16/2017 Each variety has distinct functions H Sermons Formal letters Speeches & lectures News broadcasts ‘High’ poetry AL608 Sociolinguistics

Each variety has distinct functions Session 6 4/16/2017 Each variety has distinct functions L Conversation with family & friends Radio serials Sports broadcasts Political cartoons “Folk” poetry etc. AL608 Sociolinguistics

Examples of Diglossia Region/Country H L Switzerland Standard German Session 6 4/16/2017 Examples of Diglossia Region/Country H L Switzerland Standard German Local Swiss German dialects Middle East Classical Arabic Local Arabic dialects (Iraqi, Moroccan, Egyptian, etc.) Greece Katharévusa (‘puristic’) Dhimotiki (‘demotic, popular’) Haiti French Haitian Creole Tamil Nadu Literary Colloquial AL608 Sociolinguistics

Characteristics of Diglossic situations (1) Session 6 4/16/2017 Characteristics of Diglossic situations (1) Function: H – formal use, L – informal use Little overlap in functions Prestige: H has higher prestige than L. H is more elegant and more beautiful L is inferior to H, and is not appropriate for any formal usage. Literary Heritage: Generally, H has the greater literary tradition AL608 Sociolinguistics

Characteristics of Diglossic situations (2) Session 6 4/16/2017 Characteristics of Diglossic situations (2) Acquisition L is learned H is taught Standardization H is standardized through dictionaries, grammars, etc. L may be less standardized or not at all (may or may not be codified). Grammar Grammar of H is usually more complex; Grammar of L is usually simpler AL608 Sociolinguistics

Characteristics of Diglossic situations (3) Session 6 4/16/2017 Characteristics of Diglossic situations (3) Lexicon Most of the vocabulary is shared by both varieties. Some terms may occur in one variety but not in the other Phonology: Usually the same, but H may be more conservative and resistant to change. Stability Diglossia can be very stable, if H and L each has its own range of functions. AL608 Sociolinguistics

Question If someone were to tell you that diglossia is but a simple reflection of the social, cultural, or political oppression of a people, how might you answer? How ‘diglossic’ are classroom situations in which children who come to school speaking only a regional or social variety of English well removed from the standard variety are taught the standard variety and its various uses, particularly its use in writing?

Would you say that diglossia is found in Chiang Mai? Why or why not? Is there a form of diglossia in your home community? Why or why not? Are there any signs of diglossia breaking down? What are these? Are people concerned about these changes?

For full details: http://colfa.utsa.edu/tillery/notes.html Session 6 4/16/2017 The history of English in the three centuries after 1066 is of considerable interest. The Norman Conquest established Norman French as the H variety and English as the L variety. What caused English eventually to triumph and French to be eliminated from use in England (except as a clearly marked ‘foreign’ language)? Where did Latin fit into the overall picture? For full details: http://colfa.utsa.edu/tillery/notes.html AL608 Sociolinguistics

Bilingualism and Multilingualism

What is multilingualism? Session 6 4/16/2017 What is multilingualism? Personal level--how many languages can an individual communicate in? National level--how many languages are in use in a particular country? AL608 Sociolinguistics

“How many languages do you speak?” Session 6 4/16/2017 “How many languages do you speak?” L1: the first language, the “Mother Tongue” L2: a second language L3, L4, … We’ll use “bilingualism” to cover bi-, tri-, multi-lingualism AL608 Sociolinguistics

The Mother Tongue (L1) Origin the language one learned first Session 6 4/16/2017 The Mother Tongue (L1) Origin the language one learned first Competence the language one knows best Function the language one uses most Attitudes the language one identifies with or is identified as a native speaker of by other people AL608 Sociolinguistics

Definitions of Bilingualism Session 6 4/16/2017 Definitions of Bilingualism Weinrich (1957) alternate use of two languages Haugen (1959) ability to produce complete and meaningful utterances in two languages Hymes (1964) knowing the appropriate way of speaking in a particular situation what a speaker “must learn about a group’s verbal behavior in order to participate appropriately and effectively in its activities.” AL608 Sociolinguistics

Types of Bilingualism

Simultaneous vs. Successive SIMULTANEOUS BILINGUALISM: Two languages acquired before the age of 3 SUCCESSIVE BILINGUALISM: Two languages acquired, one after the age of 3

Additive vs. Subtractive ADDITIVE BILINGUALISM: L2 is acquired in addition to L1 SUBTRACTIVE BILINGUALISM: L2 replaces L1 (Lambert 1967) additive bilingualism: When learning a second language does not interfere with the learning of a first language. Both languages are developed. This can be contrasted to subtractive bilingualism. subtractive bilingualism: When learning a second language interferes with the learning of a first language. The second language replaces the first language. This is commonly found in children who emigrate to a foreign country when they are young, especially in cases of orphans who are deprived of their first language input.  This can be contrasted toadditive bilingualism.

Balanced vs. Dominant BALANCED BILINGUALISM: DOMINANT BILINGUALISM: Equal competence in both languages DOMINANT BILINGUALISM: Greater competence in L1 or L2 the stronger is said to be dominant BALANCED BILINGUALISM: People who are able to use their two languages equally or with equal levels of proficiency are sometimes referred to as balanced bilinguals.

Compound vs. Coordinate COMPOUND BILINGUALISM: Primary cognitive activity is in L1 COORDINATE BILINGUALISM: Cognitive development is in both languages (Fishman 1965) Example "While she was raised to speak English, her new position in Miami, Florida would require she use the Spanish she had learned, rendering her a coordinate bilingual five days a week." Source: Psychology Dictionary  Compound Bilingualism: Here, the person learns the two languages in the same context where they are used concurrently, so that there is a fused representation of the languages in the brain. This is the case when a child is brought up by bilingual parents, or those from two different linguistic backgrounds. This is additive in nature. Coordinate Bilingualism: In this type, the person learns the languages in separate environments, and words of the two languages are kept separate with each word having its own specific meaning.

Active vs. Passive ACTIVE BILINGUALISM: PASSIVE BILINGUALISM: the person can both speak and understand L2 PASSIVE BILINGUALISM: the person can only understand L2

Example: A Thai Trilingual Session 6 4/16/2017 Example: A Thai Trilingual Sudrutai Arunsirot writes: I can speak 3 languages. They are Northern Thai, Central Thai and English. I have spoken Northern Thai since I was born. When I was five years old, I began learning to speak English and Central Thai. So my bilingualism can be classified as successive, additive and active. My competence in speaking Northern Thai is stronger than the others. So it is said to be dominant. AL608 Sociolinguistics

Question The term bilingual is used in describing countries such as Canada, Belgium, and Switzerland (also multilingual in this case). What kind of bilingualism (or multilingualism) is this? A speaker of English who wants to learn another language, particularly an ‘exotic’ one, may find the task difficult. Speakers of that other language may insist on using what little English they know rather than their own language, and there may also be compelling social reasons that prevent the would-be learner from achieving any but a most rudimentary knowledge of the target language. What factors contribute to this kind of situation? How might you seek to avoid it?

Is it possible to have a society in which everyone is completely bilingual in the same two languages and there is no diglossia? How stable would such a situation be? Some communities regard bilingualism as a serious threat; it has even been referred to as a ‘Trojan horse,’ initially attractive but ultimately fatal. Why might this be so? (Consider the experience of migration and also the sorry state of many minority languages in the world.)

Code Choice in a Multilingual Context Session 5 4/16/2017 Code Choice in a Multilingual Context AL608 Sociolinguistics

A Multilingual’s choice of languages is determined by… Session 5 4/16/2017 A Multilingual’s choice of languages is determined by… Interlocutor Role relationship Interlocutor - in·ter·loc·u·tor   Who are you speaking with? Role relationship How are you related to the person you are speaking with? AL608 Sociolinguistics

A Multilingual’s choice of languages is determined by… Session 5 4/16/2017 A Multilingual’s choice of languages is determined by… Domain Topic Domain The environment where the communication takes place Topic What topic do you plan to discuss? AL608 Sociolinguistics

A Multilingual’s choice of languages is determined by… Session 5 4/16/2017 A Multilingual’s choice of languages is determined by… Venue Channel of Communication Venue Where will the discussion take place? Channel of Communication With the conversation be face-to-face, by phone, or email? AL608 Sociolinguistics

A Multilingual’s choice of languages is determined by… Session 5 4/16/2017 A Multilingual’s choice of languages is determined by… Type of interaction Phatic function Type of interaction Formal business interaction as opposed to informal conversation? Phatic function Does the speaker wish to convey a special effect, e.g. dramatic? Used to share feelings or to establish a mood of sociability rather than to communicate information or ideas. AL608 Sociolinguistics

Session 5 4/16/2017 “Code switching” Monica Heller 1988 “the use of more than one language in the course of a single communicative episode” Carol Myers-Scotton 1993 mentions “the use of two or more languages in the same conversation.” Gumperz (1982) defines code-switching as “the juxtaposition within the same speech exchange of passages of speech belonging to two different grammatical systems or subsystems” (p. 59). AL608 Sociolinguistics

Situational and Metaphorical Blom and Gumperz (1972) distinguish two types of code switching: - Situational code-switching is related to a change in situation, for instance, when a new participant joins the activity, or a change in the conversation topic or setting. - Metaphorical code-switching is often used as a conversational strategy to enhance or mitigate conversational acts such as requests, denials, topic shifts, elaborations or clarifications.

Question Have you ever found yourself in a situation where you have code-switched or code-mixed? When you visit a foreign country whose language you know either well or poorly, when do you use that language and when do you not? What factors govern your choice?