Political discourse analysis, sport and Scottish independence: provisional reflections upon Fairclough and Fairclough's (2012) analytical framework Stuart Whigham St Mary's University & Loughborough University

Aims Outline key elements of the political discourse analysis framework proposed by Fairclough and Fairclough (2012) Apply Fairclough and Fairclough's model to provisional data from ongoing doctoral thesis, scrutinising the nature of political discourse relating to sport, the Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games and Scottish independence Reflect upon the potential analytical utility of the political discourse analysis framework proposed by Fairclough and Fairclough (2012) by outlining its potential benefits and limitations for the ongoing research project

‘Scotland’s Future’ and political narratives of the Glasgow Commonwealth Games and the independence referendum

PhD Research ‘Scotland’s Future’ and political narratives of the Glasgow Commonwealth Games and the independence referendum Aims of project: – Critically examine predominant political narratives which emanate from political discourse in relation to 2014 Glasgow Commonwealth Games and Scottish independence referendum – Scrutinise extent to which staging of the Commonwealth Games in Scotland is exploited politically in relation to debates about Scotland’s constitutional future

PhD Methodology - Narrative Analysis Analysis of production and dissemination of political narratives relating to both Commonwealth Games and Scottish independence referendum Scrutinises content of official party political communication sources and production processes underpinning its creation Importance of developing coherent narratives to sustain effective political campaigns acknowledged in recent studies of political communication (Roberts and Crossley, 2004; McNair, 2011; Negrine, 2008)

PhD Methodology – Critical Discourse Analysis Draws upon principles of CDA to evaluate content, structure and production of political communication relating to Games & referendum (Fairclough, 2003, 2015; Fairclough & Wodak, 1997; Wodak and Meyer, 2009) “Critical discourse analysis sees discourse – language use in speech and writing – as a form of ‘social practice’. Describing discourse as social practice implies a dialectical relationship between a particular discursive event and the situation(s), institution(s) and social structure(s) which frame it.” (Fairclough & Wodak, 1997: 258)

Fairclough & Fairclough’s (2012) Political Discourse Analysis Framework

Norman Fairclough & CDA Numerous neo-Marxist influences on theoretical underpinnings of CDA - Althusser’s ‘ideological state apparatuses’; Bakhtin’s ‘genre theory’; Gramsci’s concept of ‘hegemony’ (Blommaert, 2005; Fairclough, 2015; Titscher et al., 2000) Fairclough’s approach to CDA influenced by systemic functional linguistics (Halliday) - emphasises goals of language use as means to an end, rather than structure and content of language as end in itself (Fairclough, 2003, 2015; Titscher et al., 2000)

Fairclough & Fairclough (2012): Political Discourse Analysis Political discourse as “primarily a form of argumentation… argumentation for or against particular ways of acting, argumentation that can ground decision” (ibid: 1; original emphasis) ‘Pragma-dialectical’ approach (van Eemeren and Grootendorst, 1992, 2004; van Eemeren, 2010) - ‘normative’ as well as ‘descriptive’ level of analysis ‘Imaginaries’ (goal premises) & ‘narratives’ (circumstantial premises) represent ‘mental conceptions’ in semiotic or discursive form

Fairclough & Fairclough (2012): Model Overview (Fairclough & Fairclough, 2012: 45)

Fairclough & Fairclough (2012): Example – ‘The Third Way’ (Fairclough & Fairclough, 2012: 89)

Fairclough & Fairclough’s (2012) Framework: Glasgow 2014 & Scottish Political Discourse

Glasgow 2014 Discourse - SNP VALUES: Scotland should be an independent, sovereign state; political self- determination; promotion of Scottish interests GOAL: To achieve independence for Scotland with ‘Yes’ vote in independence referendum; to gain control over APD CIRCUMSTANCES: Scottish tourism is hampered by Westminster control of Air Passenger Duty; Glasgow Games & Ryder Cup put Scotland on map to world; Year of Homecoming hampered by APD; “Scotland is penalised under the current system - APD has sky- rocketed in recent years” MEANS-GOAL: Convince Scottish electorate to vote for independence; “It is clear that this [control over APD] can only be delivered with a Yes vote next September” CLAIM: “If Scotland had powers to set our own APD rates we could give our aviation industry and travellers a better and fairer deal, cheaper holiday costs and businesses a competitive tax regime which is more in line with mainland European nations. It is clear that this can only be delivered with a Yes vote next September.”

Glasgow 2014 Discourse - Labour VALUES: Scotland should remain part of the UK; enhanced devolution gives ‘best of both worlds’; social democracy; social justice; redistribution GOAL: To achieve economic development in Scotland within UK; economic regeneration in deprived areas CIRCUMSTANCES: Glasgow 2014 Games about to commence; “eyes of the world on us for the next two weeks”; “Commonwealth Games will hopefully be some light relief (for politicians and the public!) from the referendum debate”; “we will be missing a great opportunity if it is not just one aspect of a lasting Commonwealth legacy for the whole of Scotland” MEANS-GOAL: Ensure Glasgow 2014 legacy is realised; avoid politicisation of 2014 Games through cross- party consensus; convince Scotland to vote against independence CLAIM: “While the early signs are promising - increased participation in sport, thousands of Games-related apprenticeships… tourist boom… there is a long way to go to secure a legacy that we can be proud of… community involvement is key to ensuring that this legacy is substantial, wide-reaching and deep-rooted.”

Fairclough & Fairclough’s (2012) Framework: Provisional Methodological Reflections

Framework Benefits? Offers opportunity for concise representation of rich and voluminous forms of political discourse Ability to clearly identify and analysis core aspects of political discourse & argumentation (e.g. ‘values’, ‘goals’, ‘circumstances’, ‘action’) Element of flexibility in analytical themes – later adds numerous examples throughout case study application Encourages encroachment of subjectivity into data analysis process

Framework Limitations? Argues that “analysis of non-argumentative genres (narrative, explanation) should also be viewed in relation to the arguments in which they are usually imbedded” (2012: 1; emphasis added)… are narratives of ‘circumstantial premises’ non-argumentative? Explicitly contradicts position of Zizek (2009) Distinction between ‘narrative’ and ‘imaginary’ is problematic regarding argumentation – undermines proposed synthesis of narrative analysis within current study? Are ‘imaginaries’ of a future goal always evident in political discourse? Can be highlighting problems – not always solutions Elements of reductionism in framework – over-simplification?

Political discourse analysis, sport and Scottish independence: provisional reflections upon Fairclough and Fairclough's (2012) analytical framework Stuart Whigham St Mary's University & Loughborough University

References Blommaert, J. (2005) Discourse. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fairclough, N. (2003) Analysing discourse: textual analysis for social research. London: Routledge. Fairclough, N. (2009) A dialectical-relational approach to critical discourse analysis in social research. In R. Wodak, and M. Meyer (eds.) Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis (2 nd ed.), London: Sage, pp Fairclough, N. (2015) Language and Power (3rd ed.), London: Routledge. Fairclough, I. and Fairclough, N. (2012) Political discourse analysis: a method for advanced students. London: Routledge. Fairclough, N. and Wodak, R. (1997) Critical discourse analysis. In T. van Dijk (ed.) Introduction to Discourse Studies, London: Sage, pp McNair, B. (2011) An Introduction to Political Communication (5 th ed.). London: Routledge. Negrine, R. (2008) The Transformation of Political Communication. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

References Roberts, J.M., and Crossley, N. (2004) Introduction. In J.M. Roberts, and N. Crossley, (eds.). After Habermas: New Perspectives on the Public Sphere. Oxford: Blackwell. pp1-27. Seymour-Ure, C. (1974) The Political Impact of Mass Media, London: Constable. Titscher, S., Meyer, M., Wodak, R., and Vetter, E. (2000) Methods of text and discourse analysis. London: Sage. van Eemeren, F.H. (2010) Strategic maneuvering in argumentative discourse. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. van Eemeren, F.H., and Grootendorst, R. (1992) Argumentation, communication and fallacies, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. van Eemeren, F.H., and Grootendorst, R. (2004) A systematic theory of argumentation: the pragma-dialectical approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wodak, R., and Meyer, M. (2009) Critical discourse analysis: history, agenda, theory and methodology. In R. Wodak, and M. Meyer (eds.) Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis (2 nd ed.), London: Sage, pp Zizek, S. (2009) First as tragedy, then as farce. London: Verso.