Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood Chapter 19 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood

Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Black Hawk College Chapter 19

The Multidimensional, Multidirectional Nature of Cognition Cognitive Mechanics Cognitive Pragmatics Sensory/Motor and Speed of Processing Dimensions Memory Wisdom Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Cognitive Mechanics The hardware of the mind; reflect the neurophysiological architecture of the brain developed through evolution. Involve the speed and accuracy of the processes involving sensory input, visual and motor memory, discrimination, comparison, and categorization. Due to the strong influence of biology, heredity, and health on cognitive mechanics, their decline with age is likely. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Cognitive Pragmatics The culture-based software programs of the mind. Include reading and writing skills, language comprehension, educational qualifications, professional skills, and also the type of knowledge about the self and life skills that help us to master or cope with life. Because of the strong influence of culture on cognitive pragmatics, their improvement into old age is possible. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Sensory/Motor and Speed of Processing Dimensions The speed of processing information declines in late adulthood. There is, however, considerable individual variation in this ability. It is not clear that this slowdown affects our lives in substantial ways. Studies indicate we may engage in compensatory behaviors, so as to not be hindered by the slowdown. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Memory Episodic Memory Semantic Memory Cognitive Resources: Working Memory and Perceptual Speed Explicit and Implicit Memory Memory Beliefs Noncognitive Factors Conclusions about Memory and Aging Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Episodic Memory The retention of information about the where and when of life’s happenings. Younger adults have better episodic memory than older adults, even though older adults think that they can remember older events better than more recent events. Researchers have consistently found that in older adults the older the memory, the less accurate it is. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Semantic Memory A person’s knowledge about the world. It includes a person’s fields of expertise, general academic knowledge of the sort learned in school, and “everyday knowledge.” Semantic memory appears to be independent of an individual’s personal identity with the past. For the most part, episodic memory declines more in older adults than semantic memory. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Cognitive Resources: Working Memory and Perceptual Speed Working memory is the concept currently used to describe short-term memory as a place for mental work. Perceptual speed is the ability to perform simple perceptual-motor tasks such as deciding whether pairs of two-digit or two-letter strings are the same or different. Researchers have found declines in working memory and perceptual speed during the late adulthood years. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Explicit and Implicit Memory Explicit or declarative memory - memory of facts and experiences that individuals consciously know and can state. Implicit memory - memory without conscious recollection; it involves skills and routine procedures that are automatically performed. Implicit memory is less likely to be adversely affected by aging than explicit memory. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Memory Beliefs Research shows that people’s beliefs about memory play an important role in their actual memory. What people tell themselves about their ability to remember matters. Findings have shown a relationship between positive and negative beliefs about one’s memory and actual memory performance. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Noncognitive Factors Health, education, and SES can influence an older adult’s performance on memory tasks. Positive aspects of these noncognitive factors are associated less with memory decline; they do not eliminate it. Researchers have found that using more everyday life memory tasks in their studies reduces age decrements in memory but does not eliminate them. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Conclusions about Memory and Aging Some, but not all, aspects of memory decline in older adults. The decline occurs primarily in episodic and working memory, not in semantic memory. A decline in perceptual speed is associated with memory decline. Successful aging does not mean eliminating memory decline, but reducing it and adapting to it. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Wisdom Expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life that permits excellent judgement about important matters. Focuses on life’s pragmatic concerns and human conditions. Research shows no age differences in wisdom. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Wisdom Wisdom involves solving practical problems. Research indicates that older adults are quite competent in problem solving with regard to everyday types of situations. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Education: Links to Cognitive Functioning More older adults are returning to college today to further their education. Educational experiences are positively correlated with scores on intelligence tests and information processing tasks, such as memory. Older adults seek more education to: remain competitive in the workforce learn about societal and technological changes enhance their self-discovery Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Work: Links to Cognitive Functioning Successive generations have had work experiences that include a stronger emphasis on cognitive-oriented labor. The increased emphasis on information processing jobs likely enhances an individual’s intellectual abilities. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Work: Links to Cognitive Functioning One recent study linked substantive complex work with higher intellectual functioning in older adults. Exposure to complex environments increases intellectual functioning throughout the life course. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Health: Links to Cognitive Functioning In a recent study, physical health and physical activity were positively related to cognitive performance in older adults. K. Warner Schaie concluded that some diseases are linked to cognitive dropoffs, most likely due to the lifestyles of the individuals with diseases. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Health: Links to Cognitive Functioning Overeating, inactivity, and stress are related to both physical and mental decay. Walking or any other aerobic exercise appears to get blood and oxygen pumping to the brain, which may help people think more clearly. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

The Terminal Drop Hypothesis The terminal drop hypothesis states that death is preceded by a decrease in cognitive functioning over approximately a 5-year period prior to death. Thus the negative findings for older adults in some investigations that compare older adults with younger adults may be due in part to age from death rather than simply age from birth. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Use It or Lose It Possibly changes in cognitive activity patterns result in disuse and consequent atrophy of cognitive skills. In the Victoria Longitudinal Study, when middle-aged and older adults participated in intellectually engaging activities it served to buffer them against cognitive decline. The mental activities that likely benefit the maintenance of cognitive skills in older adults are reading books, doing crossword puzzles, and going to lectures and concerts. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Training Cognitive Skills Two main conclusions from research in this area: There is plasticity, and training can improve the cognitive skills of many older adults. There is some loss in plasticity in late adulthood. Mnemonics can be used to improve older adults’ cognitive skills. A recent study demonstrated that cognitive training helped to remediate cognitive decline in elderly adults and enhanced the performance of individuals who were not showing decline. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Work In men, good health, a strong psychological commitment to work, and a distaste for retirement were the most important characteristics related to continued employment into old age. An increasing number of middle-aged and older adults are embarking on a second or third career. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Work Working affords opportunities for productive activity, social interaction, and a positive identity. Cognitive ability is one of the best predictors of job performance in the elderly. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Retirement in the United States In a recent survey, 80% of baby boomers said that they expect to work during the retirement years. This is primarily due to their desire to work for interest or enjoyment, followed by income, and the desire to start a business. In 1986, Congress voted to ban mandatory retirement for all but a few occupations. This enables older workers to decide on their own when to retire rather than be forced into it. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Retirement in Other Countries In many European countries, officials have experimented with various financial inducements designed to reduce or control unemployment by encouraging the retirement of older workers. However, in the Netherlands, there is an effort to recruit retired persons to reenter the workforce because of low unemployment in the country. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Adjustment to Retirement Older adults who are healthy, have adequate income, are active, are better educated, and have extended social networks adjust better to retirement. Cultivating interests and friends unrelated to work improves adaptation to retirement. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Adjustment to Retirement It is important to plan financially for retirement, and to consider other areas of your life as well. Individuals who retire involuntarily are more unhealthy, depressed, and poorly adjusted than those who retire voluntarily. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Black Hawk College Chapter 19

The Nature of Mental Health in Older Adults Mental disorders make individuals increasingly dependent on the help and care of others. The cost of mental health disorders in older adults is estimated at more than $40 billion per year in the U.S. Although mental disorders in older adults are a major concern, they do not have a higher incidence of mental disorders than younger adults. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Depression Major depression is a mood disorder in which the individual is deeply unhappy, demoralized, self-derogatory, and bored. The individual with major depression does not feel well, loses stamina easily, has a poor appetite, and is listless and unmotivated. It can result in suicidal tendencies, as nearly 25% of individuals who commit suicide in the U.S. are 65 years of age or older. Depression is a treatable condition. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Dementia The Basics of Dementia Alzheimer’s Disease Multi-Infarct Dementia Parkinson’s Disease Black Hawk College Chapter 19

The Basics of Dementia Dementia is a global term for any neurological disorder in which the primary symptoms involve a deterioration of mental functioning. Individuals with dementia often lose the ability to care for themselves and may lose the ability to recognize familiar surroundings and people. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

The Basics of Dementia Over seventy types or causes of dementia have been identified. It is estimated that 20% of individuals over the age of 80 have dementia. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Alzheimer’s Disease About Alzheimer’s Disease Causes and Treatments Tangles and Plaques Early Detection of Alzheimer’s Disease Stages Caring for Individuals with Alzheimer’s Disease Black Hawk College Chapter 19

About Alzheimer’s Disease The most common form of dementia. It is a progressive, irreversible disorder that is characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and eventually physical functioning. As Alzheimer’s disease progresses, deterioration and shrinking of the brain occurs. Approximately 2.5 million people over the age of 65 in the U.S. have Alzheimer’s disease. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Causes and Treatments Efforts to identify the cause of Alzheimer’s have not yet been successful. What scientists now believe is that Alzheimer’s disease is a complex unraveling of neural structure and function that likely involves many different molecular and cellular dimensions. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Causes and Treatments The disease involves a deficiency in acetylcholine, which plays an important role in memory. The main drug used to treat Alzheimer’s disease works by blocking chemicals that ordinarily cut acetylcholine apart. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Tangles and Plaques Tangles - tied bundles of protein that impair the functioning of neurons. Plaques - deposits that accumulate in the brain’s blood vessels. Tangle and plaque formation are a normal part of aging; however, they are much more pervasive in Alzheimer’s patients. Alzheimer’s disease may have a genetic basis in some individuals. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Early Detection of Alzheimer’s Disease Brain scans such as an MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) can detect changes in the brain that are fairly typical of early Alzheimer’s disease even before symptoms develop. Certain spinal fluids give reasonably good clues of early signals of Alzheimer’s disease. Recently a sophisticated urine test called the neural thread protein has predicted the occurrence of Alzheimer’s in some individuals 2 years before the symptoms appear. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Stages There is a predictable, progressive decline in physical, cognitive, and social functioning when individuals have Alzheimer’s disease. Once diagnosed, most patients live approximately 8 years. They progress from early problems of memory loss and declining intellectual function to later stages in which hospitalization in a near vegetative state ensues. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Caring for Individuals with Alzheimer’s Disease Psychologists believe the family can be an important support system for Alzheimer’s patients. However, family support can have costs for the family, who can become emotionally drained by the extensive care required for a person with Alzheimer’s disease. Depression has been reported in 50% of family caregivers for Alzheimer’s patients. Respite care has been developed to help people who care for Alzheimer’s patients. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Multi-Infarct Dementia Involves a sporadic and progressive loss of intellectual functioning caused by repeated temporary obstruction of blood flow in cerebral arteries. The result is a series of mini-strokes which the individual usually recovers from quickly. Symptoms include confusion, slurring of speech, writing impairment, and numbness on one side of the face, arm, or leg. Approximately 35-50% of people who have these attacks will have a major stroke within 5 years unless the underlying problems are treated. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Parkinson’s Disease Parkinson’s disease is a chronic, progressive disease characterized by muscle tremors, slowing of movement, and partial facial paralysis. It is triggered by degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the brain. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Parkinson’s Disease Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is necessary for normal brain functioning. Why the degeneration of the production of dopamine occurs is not known. A drug called l-dopa is the main treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Fear of Victimization and Crime Some of the physical decline and limitations that characterize development in late adulthood contribute to a sense of vulnerability and fear among older adults. Almost one-fourth of older adults say they have a basic fear of being the victim of a crime. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Fear of Victimization and Crime They are, however, less likely than younger adults to be the victim of a crime. Fear of crime may become a deterrent to travel, attendance at social events, and the pursuit of an active lifestyle. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Elder Maltreatment Elder maltreatment is primarily carried out by family members. The perpetrators are most likely to be male spouses. It can involve neglect or physical abuse. Elderly women also are more likely to experience property damage and robbery. In these cases, though, the perpetrator is most likely to be a young male unrelated to the victim. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Meeting the Mental Health Needs of Older Adults Some common mechanisms of change that improve the mental health of older adults are: fostering a sense of control, self-efficacy, and hope establishing a relationship with a helper providing or elucidating a sense of meaning promoting educative activities and development of skills Psychologists must be encouraged to include more older adults in their client lists. The elderly must be convinced that they can benefit from therapy. Mental health care must be made affordable. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Religious Involvement Older women have been found to have a stronger interest in religion than older men. Individuals over 65 have reported being more likely than younger people to claim religious faith as the most significant influence in their lives, that they try to put religious faith into practice, and that they attend religious services. Older adults have also been found to have a stronger interest in spirituality and to pray more than younger adults. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Benefits of Religious Involvement In one study of 836 older persons, religious practices and religious feelings were associated with a sense of well-being, especially for those over 75. Another study revealed that older adults’ self-esteem was highest when they had a strong religious commitment. Religion can help older adults face impending death, find and maintain a sense of meaningfulness and significance in life, and accept inevitable losses of old age. Black Hawk College Chapter 19

Religion and Longevity A recent study showed that individuals who said they rarely or never prayed had about a 50% greater risk of dying during the 6-year study compared with their counterparts who prayed or meditated at least once a month. Possibly the lower incidence of death in these individuals occurred because prayer and meditation reduce stress and dampen the body’s production of stress hormones. Black Hawk College Chapter 19