 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Operator Overloading

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Introduction Use operators with objects (operator overloading) – Clearer than function calls for certain classes – Operator sensitive to context Examples – << Stream insertion, bitwise left-shift – + Performs arithmetic on multiple items (integers, floats, etc.)

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Fundamentals of Operator Overloading Types for operator overloading – Built in ( int, char ) or user-defined (classes) – Can use existing operators with user-defined types Cannot create new operators Overloading operators – Create a function for the class – Name of operator function Keyword operator followed by symbol – Example operator+ for the addition operator +

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Fundamentals of Operator Overloading (Cont.) Using operators on a class object – It must be overloaded for that class Exceptions: (can also be overloaded by the programmer) – Assignment operator ( = ) Memberwise assignment between objects – Address operator ( & ) Returns address of object – Comma operator (, ) Evaluates expression to its left then the expression to its right Returns the value of the expression to its right Overloading provides concise notation – object2 = object1.add( object2 ); vs. object2 = object2 + object1;

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Restrictions on Operator Overloading Cannot change – Precedence of operator (order of evaluation) Use parentheses to force order of operators – Associativity (left-to-right or right-to-left) – Number of operands e.g., & is unary, can only act on one operand – How operators act on built-in data types (i.e., cannot change integer addition) Cannot create new operators Operators must be overloaded explicitly – Overloading + and = does not overload += Operator ?: cannot be overloaded

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 6 Fig | Operators that cannot be overloaded. Fig | Operators that can be overloaded.

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7 Software Engineering Observation 11.2 At least one argument of an operator function must be an object or reference of a user-defined type. This prevents programmers from changing how operators work on fundamental types.

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 8 Common Programming Error 11.5 Assuming that overloading an operator such as + overloads related operators such as += or that overloading == overloads a related operator like != can lead to errors. Operators can be overloaded only explicitly; there is no implicit overloading.

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Operator Functions as Class Members vs. Global Members Operator functions – As member functions Leftmost object must be of same class as operator function Use this keyword to implicitly get left operand argument Operators (), [], -> or any assignment operator must be overloaded as a class member function Called when – Left operand of binary operator is of this class – Single operand of unary operator is of this class – As global functions Need parameters for both operands Can have object of different class than operator Can be a friend to access private or protected data

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Operator Functions as Class Members vs. Global Members (Cont.) Overloaded << operator – Left operand of type ostream & Such as cout object in cout << classObject – Similarly, overloaded >> has left operand of istream & – Thus, both must be global functions > operators – Already overloaded to process each built-in type – Can also process a user-defined class Overload using global, friend functions

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Operator Functions as Class Members vs. Global Members (Cont.) Commutative operators – May want + to be commutative So both “ a + b ” and “ b + a ” work – Suppose we have two different classes Overloaded operator can only be member function when its class is on left – HugeIntClass + long int Can be member function When other way, need a global overloaded function – long int + HugeIntClass

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Overloading Unary Operators Overloading unary operators – Can overload as non- static member function with no arguments – Can overload as global function with one argument Argument must be class object or reference to class object – Remember, static functions only access static data

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Overloading Unary Operators (Cont.) Example: – Overload ! to test for empty string – If non- static member function, needs no arguments class String { public: bool operator!() const; … }; !s becomes s.operator!() – If global function, needs one argument bool operator!( const String & ) !s becomes operator!(s)

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Overloading Binary Operators Overloading binary operators – Non- static member function, one argument – Global function, two arguments One argument must be class object or reference

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Overloading Binary Operators (Cont.) Example: Overloading += – If non- static member function, needs one argument class String { public: const String & operator+=( const String & ); … }; y += z becomes y.operator+=( z ) – If global function, needs two arguments const String & operator+=(String &, const String &); y += z becomes operator+=( y, z )

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Case Study: Array Class Pointer-based arrays in C++ – No range checking – Cannot be compared meaningfully with == – No array assignment (array names are const pointers) – If array passed to a function, size must be passed as a separate argument Example: Implement an Array class with – Range checking – Array assignment – Arrays that know their own size – Outputting/inputting entire arrays with > – Array comparisons with == and !=

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Case Study: Array Class (Cont.) Copy constructor – Used whenever copy of object is needed: Passing by value (return value or parameter) Initializing an object with a copy of another of same type – Array newArray( oldArray ); or Array newArray = oldArray (both are identical) newArray is a copy of oldArray – Prototype for class Array Array( const Array & ); Must take reference – Otherwise, the argument will be passed by value… – Which tries to make copy by calling copy constructor… Infinite loop

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 18 Outline Array.h

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 19 Outline Array.cpp (1 of 4)

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 20 Outline Array.cpp (2 of 4)

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 21 Outline Array.cpp (3 of 4)

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 22 Outline Array.cpp (4 of 4)

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 23 Outline fig11_08.cpp (1 of 4)

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 24 Outline fig11_08.cpp (2 of 4)

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 25 Outline fig11_08.cpp (3 of 4)

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 26 Outline fig11_08.cpp (4 of 4)

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 27 Software Engineering Observation 11.4 The argument to a copy constructor should be a const reference to allow a const object to be copied.

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 28 Common Programming Error 11.6 Note that a copy constructor must receive its argument by reference, not by value. Otherwise, the copy constructor call results in infinite recursion (a fatal logic error) because receiving an object by value requires the copy constructor to make a copy of the argument object.

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 29 Common Programming Error 11.7 If the copy constructor simply copied the pointer in the source object to the target object’s pointer, then both objects would point to the same dynamically allocated memory. The first destructor to execute would then delete the dynamically allocated memory, and the other object’s ptr would be undefined, a situation called a dangling pointer—this would likely result in a serious run-time error (such as early program termination) when the pointer was used.

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 30 Error-Prevention Tip 11.1 Returning a reference from an overloaded > operator function is typically successful because cout, cin and most stream objects are global, or at least long-lived. Returning a reference to an automatic variable or other temporary object is dangerous—creating “dangling references” to nonexisting objects.

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Overloading ++ and -- Increment/decrement operators can be overloaded – Suppose we want to add 1 to a Date object, d1 – Prototype (member function) Date &operator++(); ++d1 becomes d1.operator++() – Prototype (global function) Date &operator++( Date & ); ++d1 becomes operator++( d1 )

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Overloading ++ and -- (Cont.) To distinguish prefix and postfix increment – Postfix increment has a dummy parameter An int with value 0 – Prototype (member function) Date operator++( int ); d1++ becomes d1.operator++( 0 ) – Prototype (global function) Date operator++( Date &, int ); d1++ becomes operator++( d1, 0 )

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Overloading ++ and -- (Cont.) Return values – Prefix increment Returns by reference ( Date & ) lvalue (can be assigned) – Postfix increment Returns by value – Returns temporary object with old value rvalue (cannot be on left side of assignment) All this applies to decrement operators as well

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Case Study: A Date Class Example Date class – Overloaded increment operator Change day, month and year – Overloaded += operator – Function to test for leap years – Function to determine if day is last of month

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 35 Outline Date.h (1 of 1)

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 36 Outline Date.cpp (1 of 2)

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 37 Outline Date.cpp (2 of 2)

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 38 Outline fig11_14.cpp (1 of 2)

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 39 Outline fig11_14.cpp (2 of 2)