NATURAL pH OF RAIN Equilibrium with natural CO 2 (280 ppmv) results in a rain pH of 5.7: This pH can be modified by natural acids (H 2 SO 4, HNO 3, RCOOH…)

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NATURAL pH OF RAIN Equilibrium with natural CO 2 (280 ppmv) results in a rain pH of 5.7: This pH can be modified by natural acids (H 2 SO 4, HNO 3, RCOOH…) and bases (NH 3, CaCO 3 )  natural rain has a pH in range 5-7 “Acid rain” refers to rain with pH < 5  damage to ecosystems

PRECIPITATION PH OVER THE UNITED STATES

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PRECIPITATION Neutralization by NH 3 is illusory because NH 4 +  NH 3 + H + in ecosystem

CONTRAST TO THE AEROSOL DISTRIBUTION: Highest concentrations in industrial Midwest (coal-fired power plants) SulfateNitrate Ammonium Acidity Park et al. [2006]

LONG-TERM TREND IN US SO 2 EMISSIONS

AMMONIUM AND SULFATE TRENDS, NH 4 + SO 4 2- Lehmann et al. [2007]

TREND IN FREQUENCY OF ACID RAIN (pH < 5) Lehmann et al. [2007]

BUT ECOSYSTEM ACIDIFICATION IS PARTLY A TITRATION PROBLEM FROM ACID INPUT OVER MANY YEARS Acid-neutralizing capacity (ANC) from CaCO 3 and other bases Acid flux F H+

DEPLETION OF BASE CATIONS FROM ACID RAIN (Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire)