Basics of protein structure and stability IV: Anatomy of protein structure continued Biochem 565, Fall /03/08 Cordes

the main-chain can hydrogen bond to itself the amide nitrogen: main-chain hydrogen bond donor the carbonyl oxygen: main-chain hydrogen bond acceptor there are also side- chain acceptors and donors

Hydrogen bond not really a covalent ”bond”--not much orbital overlap. Model as an electrostatic interaction between two dipoles consisting of the H-N bond and the O sp 2 lone pair. In electrostatic theory, the optimal orientation of two such dipoles is head-to-tail. The energy of such an arrangement should decrease as the head and tail are brought together as long as atomic van der Waals radii are not violated (then repulsive forces quickly take over). “Ideal” hydrogen bond in this model would have r~3.0 Å, p=180°,  =0° and  =±60°. Convince yourself of this. In small molecule crystals, this is approximately what is observed, though there is a lot of variation in the angles  and . Thus the precise C=O…H angle parameters are not critical. Main chain-main chain hydrogen bonds found in proteins will show various deviations from this geometry, partly due to the topological constraints imposed by forming secondary structures. Hydrogen bond geometry

What is a “reasonable” hydrogen bond? Criteria for identifying hydrogen bonds are somewhat arbitrary and many have been used. Here are a couple of examples. Geometric criteria: Often H-bonds are just identified by two parameters, the O…N (acceptor-donor) distance r, and a O…H-N angle p. The angles describing the C=O…H geometry are sometimes ignored. Typical cutoffs: p > 120° and r < 3.5 Å. (Baker & Hubbard, 1984) Electrostatic criteria: One of the most commonly used criteria is a potential function based on a pure electrostatic model (Kabsch & Sander, 1983). Place partial positive and negative charges on the C,O (+q 1,-q 1 ) and N,H (+q 2,-q 2 ) atoms and compute a binding energy as the sum of repulsive and attractive interactions between these four atoms: E=q 1 q 2 (1/r(ON)+1/r(CH)-1/r(OH)-1/r(CN))*f where q 1 =0.42e and q 2 =0.20e, f is a dimensional factor (=332) to convert E to kcal/mol, and r(AB) is the interatomic distance between atoms A and B. A hydrogen bond is then identified by a binding energy less than some arbitrary cutoff, e.g. E< -0.5 kcal/mol. Note that the criteria defined above are only applicable when hydrogen atom positions are available. Crystal structures do not have hydrogens--however, their positions can be computed in many cases.

Identifying main-chain H-bonds in X-ray structures of proteins Presta LG & Rose GD Science 240, 1632 (1988) X-ray structures of proteins do not in general include hydrogen atom coordinates--get used looking at pictures of proteins without the hydrogens, and having your mind fill them in

Secondary structure elements in proteins beta-strand (nonlocal interactions) alpha-helix (local interactions) A secondary structure element is a contiguous region of a protein sequence characterized by a repeating pattern of main-chain hydrogen bonds and backbone phi/psi angles reflect the tendency of backbone to hydrogen bond with itself in a semi- ordered fashion when compacted

Local backbone H-bonding: DSSP turn/helix definitions 3-turn: ‘>’ ‘3’ ‘3’ ‘<‘ notation -N-C-C--N-C-C--N-C-C--N-C-C- residues H O N O H O H O > < H-bond 4-turn: ‘>’ ‘4’ ‘4’ ‘4‘ ‘<‘ notation -N-C-C--N-C-C--N-C-C--N-C-C-N-C-C residues H O N O H O H O H O > < H-bond 5-turn (just an elaboration of 3- and 4-turn. A minimal helix is two consecutive N-turns-- for a minimal four helix from residue i to i+3: i <--residue >444< and >444< overlap to give >4444< which defines a helix HHHH from i to i+3 ‘H’ is the notation for a residue in a 4-helix. Notice that the helix does not include the residues involved in the terminal H-bonds. Longer helices are overlapping minimal helices. Kabsch & Sander, 1983

the alpha-helix: repeating i,i+4 h-bonds By DSSP definitions, which of residues 1-12 are in the helix? Does this coincide with the residues in the helical region of phi-psi space? right-handed helical region of phi-psi space hydrogen bond

The  -helix, with i,i+4 h- bonds, is not the only way to have local hydrogen bonding of the backbone to itself. The 3 10 helix has hydrogen bonds between residues i and i+3 The  helix has hydrogen bonds between residues i and i+5. For a number of reasons almost all helices in proteins are  -helices--include backbone, side chain steric issues, van der Waals contacts, H-bond geometry  -helix 3 10 helix  helix these are poly-Ala, so the gray balls on the outside are  -carbons from the side chains

3 10 and  helices have sterically allowed conformations but not in the most favored regions of phi-psi space

Helix nomenclature:  -helix example 1Hydrogen bond between C=O H-N (residue i) (residue i+4) 1  5 helix 2Repeating unit: –5 turns –18 residues per repeat 18 5 helix 3Loop formed between C=O H-N –13 atoms 1  5 –3.6 residues per turn helix  helices extend with approximately 1.5 Angstrom per residue, 5.4 Angstrom per turn. nomenclature used for 3 10 helix

Nonlocal backbone hydrogen bonding: DSSP bridge, ladder and sheet definitions parallel bridge: ‘x’ notation -N-C-C--N-C-C--N-C-C- residues H O H O H O \.. / H-bonds \../ (\ and /,.\ /. or.). \ /. H O H O H H residues -N-C-C--N-C-C--N-C-C- ‘x’ notations antiparallel bridge: ‘X’ notation -N-C-C--N-C-C--N-C-C- residues H O H O H O. ! !. H-bonds. ! !. (! or.). ! !. O H O H O H residues -C-C-N--C-C-N--C-C-N- ‘X’ notations ladder= set of one or more consecutive bridges of identical type sheet= set of one or more ladders connected by shared residues Kabsch & Sander, 1983

beta strands/sheets Is this a parallel or anti-parallel sheet? beta-strand region of phi-psi space By DSSP definitions, which of res are in the sheet? Does this coincide with the residues in the beta-strand region of phi-psi space?

Principal types of secondary structure found in proteins Repeating (  ) values -63 o -42 o -57 o -30 o -119 o +113 o -139 o +135 o   -helix (1  5) (right-handed)    helix (1  4) Parallel  -sheet Antiparallel  -sheet

All the most common secondary structure conformations fit nicely within sterically allowed regions of phi-psi space parallel beta-sheet antiparallel beta-sheet alpha-helix

Nelson et al (Eisenberg lab), Nature 435:773 (2005). for background on “polar zippers”: Perutz et al. PNAS 91:5355 (1991) These types of fibrils important in Huntington’s disease etc amyloid-like fibril(left) of peptide GNNQNNY from the yeast prion protein Sup35, and its atomic structure (right) Because of the repetitive nature of secondary structures, and particularly beta-sheets, proteins can form fibrillar structures and aggregates amide stacks fibril axis in the case of this fibril the side chains also hydrogen bond to each other

Fibrillar helical structures: the leucine zipper GCN4 “leucine zipper” (green) bound as a dimer (two copies of the polypeptide) to target DNA The GCN4 dimer is formed through hydrophobic interactions between leucines (red) in the two polypeptide chains Leu

Are main-chain H-bonds why proteins are special? “It would seem extraordinary that no other polymer structures exist in which internal hydrogen bonding can give rise to periodically ordered conformations, but no others have been found thus far. We are therefore forced to recognize the uniqueness of this capacity in polypeptide chains, one which enables them to meet the exacting and sophisticated demands of structure and function” --Doty P, Gratzer WB in Polyamino acids, polypeptides and proteins, pp , 1962, University of Wisconsin Press see also Honig F & Cohen FE Folding & Design 1, R17-20 (1996).

Globular proteins Keep in mind, however, that if that were all proteins could do, they would just form regular repeating structures. Instead many proteins have globular structures consisting of short secondary structure elements connected by loops and turns that are not necessarily characterized by repeating hydrogen bond structures, but which serve in part to reverse the direction of the polypeptide chain. loops and turns

 -turns in proteins:reversing the chain direction  -turn consists of two residues, where there is a hydrogen bond between the carbonyl of the residue preceding the turn and the amide nitrogen following the turn. There are a number of ways to configure the backbone to achieve this. turn residues direction of polypeptide chain

four basic tight  -turns that all yield an i,i+3 hydrogen bond [from Wilmot CM & Thornton JM J Mol Biol 203, 221 (1988)]

 -turn type name pos i+1  pos i+1  pos i+2  pos i+2  I I’ II II’

Side chain conformation side chains differ in their number of degrees of conformational freedom (some don’t have any, such as Ala and Gly) but side chains of very different size can have the same number of  angles.

Side chain conformations--canonical staggered forms t=trans, g=gauche name of conformation IUPAC nomenclature: glutamate Side chain angles are defined moving outward from the backbone, starting with the N atom: so the  1 angle is N–C  –C  –C , the  2 angle is C  –C  –C  –C  Newman projections for  1 of glutamate:

Rotamers a particular combination of side chain torsional angles  1,  2, etc. for a particular residue is known as a rotamer. for example, for leucine, if one considers only the canonical staggered forms, there are nine (3 2 ) possible rotamers: g + g -, g + g +, g - g -, g - g +, tg +, g + t, tg -, g - t, tt not all rotamers are equally likely. for example, valine prefers its t rotamer (picture at right) distribution of valine rotamers in protein structures (from Ponder & Richards, 1987) 180  1 =0 360  1 =180°, trans or t

Side chain rotamers are not limited to canonical eclipsed forms--there are many subtly different rotamers How many rotamers there are also depends on how you define whether two conformations represent different rotamers: An “x degree rotamer” in this figure means that at least one side chain angle differs by x degrees: hence classifying rotamers by a 10 degree difference standard is finer grained than classifying them by, say, a 40 degree standard from Xiang & Honig, 2001 This figure simply shows that the more structures you examine, the more different rotamers become apparent--so as databases of structure have increased, so has the richness of our understanding of side chain conformation.