March 2, 2006 Thurs. We’ll finish discussing the social self and then move on to discuss attitudes.

BIRGing Basking in reflected glory: Increasing self-esteem by associating with others who are successful (BIRGing)

BIRGing Cialdini et al. (1976) Monday morning after football games, college students (from Arizona State, Louisiana State, Notre Dame, Michigan, Ohio State, etc.) more likely to wear school sweatshirts when team won on the previous Sat. & larger the victory, the more shirts worn.

BIRGing IV: General knowledge test. ½ success, ½ failure feedback DV: Describe outcome of recent football game. Results: Those who failed were more likely to share team’s victory by saying things like “we won” and to distance themselves from defeat by saying “they lost” than those who had succeeded. (This is a way to restore self- esteem.)

Berglas & Jones (1978) Cover: “Drugs and intellectual performance” Independent variable: Solvable or unsolvable problems Dependent variable: Choice of Drug Drug A: Helps intellectual performance Drug B: Inhibits intellectual performance

HelpsInhibits Unsolvable problem: Solvable problem:

Self-handicapping Self-handicapping: When a person protects his/her self-image by setting up a situation that makes it difficult to succeed, but creates a handy excuse for failure.

Defensive pessimism Defensive pessimism (Norem & Cantor): A strategy in which a person expects the worst, and works harder because of this expectation.

Defensive pessimism Defensive pessimists performed better when had negative expectations. If blocked negative expectations (by telling them would do well), they did not perform as well as their counterparts who were not given these encouraging instructions.

Explanations for self-serving bias: 1. Self-presentation--want to make a good impression on others 2. Motivation--we are motivated to protect and enhance our self-esteem.

Discussion of Swann, Hixon, & De La Ronde “Embracing the bitter ‘truth’: Negative self-concepts and marital commitment”

Attitudes I. What are attitudes? II. How do we develop attitudes? III. The link between attitudes and behavior IV. Attitude Change A. Case example B. Cognitive dissonance processes

Attitudes & Persuasion Attitudes: A positive, negative, or mixed evaluation of people, objects, or ideas.

exercise

Processes in the development of attitudes Classical conditioning Instrumental/operant conditioning Modeling Direct experience

Classical conditioning Association between an initially neutral stimulus and a stimulus that naturally produces a strong reaction. US (DC food)  UR (nausea) Pair US (DC food) with previously neutral stimulus (Marv) CS (Marv)  CR (nausea)

Operant conditioning You have been reinforced or punished for expressing a particular behavior. Asking questions in class  teacher’s approval  more favorable attitude toward participation Positive Reinforcement: Praise, approval, money, etc.  positive feelings toward attitude object Punishment: Disapproval, pain, etc.  negative feelings toward attitude object

Modeling Modeling: We observe the behavior of others and base our beliefs on such observations. –Ex: Observe mother volunteering at soup kitchen. You like volunteering based on observing her behavior.

Direct Experience Eat chocolate, love that taste!  positive attitude toward chocolate Eat liver, hate that taste!  negative attitude toward liver.

Four ways of learning are not mutually exclusive!

Link between Attitudes and Behavior Big question in social psychology: Can we predict behavior from people’s attitudes? Richard LaPiere (1934): Traveled through U.S. with Chinese couple –183/184 restaurants served them –Later asked if provide service to Chinese people. 91% (of 128 who replied) said, “No.”

When are attitudes poor predictors of behavior? (1) Low correspondence between the attitude and the behavior (Aizen & Fishbein) –Attitude toward birth control in general (r =.08) –Attitude toward using birth control pills in next 2 yrs. (r =.57) (2) Strength of attitude is weak –(strength=more knowledge; based on direct experience; more important; more accessible.)

How do attitudes change? The case of Patricia Hearst Art student, Berkeley, living w/fiance Kidnapped Feb. 4, 1974 by SLA "While I may have looked upon their beliefs with disdain, they, in turn, held my life style and my beliefs in utter contempt. Just about everything I thought was white, they said was black and they were determined to re-educate me," she wrote.

Attitude change: Patricia Hearst 2 mos later, renounced former life & joined SLA Changed name to Tania Shortly after, took part in bank robbery, then 1 mo later, she helped 2 of her captors (William & Emily Harris) rob a sporting goods store & used an automatic weapon to assist w/their escape Next day, all SLA members except Harrises and Hearst were killed in a shootout. Underground; when captured, held up fist in revolutionary salute.

What led to Hearst’s extreme change in atitude? Isolation: Separated from usual social group. Only human contact was with members of the SLA. Guilt: Made to feel guilty about her wealth and lack of involvement with the poor. Total environmental control: SLA completely controlled her environment (food, water, when she could use the bathroom) Trauma: Raped by one of kidnappers Over time, developed a relationship with her captors. She later said, “the trick was to agree with everything they said, to feign an interest in ever one of their concerns — to be a model prisoner: subservient, obedient, grateful and eager to learn...In trying to convince them I convinced myself.”

What happens when we voice particular views? Voicing particular views, even if we don’t believe them, might lead to attitude change. (In Hearst’s case, multiple factors were involved.)

Cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) Assumed we feel tension (dissonance) when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are psychologically inconsistent. We change our thinking to reduce this tension.

Video clip of Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) study

Festinger and Carlsmith IV: $1 or $20 to lie by saying a boring task was very interesting DV: How much the participant reported enjoying the dull task Results: Ps in the $1 condition said the dull task was more enjoyable than did those in the $20 condition. $1=insufficient justification for lie

Importance of Festinger & Carlsmith study Demonstrates self persuasion Contradicted long-held belief that big rewards produced attitude change “less [money] leads to more [attitude change]” effect

Ways to Reduce Dissonance TECHNIQUESEXAMPLES Change your attitude“I don’t really need to be on a diet.” Change your perception of the behavior“I hardly ate any mousse.” Add consonant cognitions“Chocolate mousse is very nutritious.” Minimize the importance“I don’t care if I’m of the conflict.overweight— life is short; mousse is great. Reduce perceived choice.“I had no other choice; it was prepared for the occasion.

Insufficient justification Aronson & Carlsmith (1963) Forbidden toy study IV: Mild threat (I won’t like it) or severe threat (will be punished) DV: later liking for the toy Results: Those faced with a mild threat liked the toy LESS than those faced with a more severe threat. Those in the mild threat group had “insufficient justification” for their behavior and therefore internalized the attitude. (severe threat group could justify)

Insufficient justification principle works for punishment as well as rewards Aronson & Mills (1959) Female students; group discussions about sex IV: Mild initiation or severe initiation or control (no initiation) Heard boring tape about “secondary sex behavior in lower animals.” Participants in severe initiation group rated the discussion more favorably than those in the mild initiation or control group.

Four steps to dissonance arousal (Cooper & Fazio) The attitude discrepant behavior must produce unwanted negative consequences. Must feel personally responsible for unpleasant consequences. Must experience physiological arousal Must attribute the arousal to your own inconsistent behavior

Cognitive dissonance theory Generated a lot of research Explanations for effects are still being debated, but inconsistency appears to be important. If time: Video clip on effects of dissenting in a group (Johnny Rocco case)