Mutation A mutation is a change in the normal base pair sequence Commonly used to define DNA sequence changes that alter protein function מוטציה – השתנות.

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Presentation transcript:

Mutation A mutation is a change in the normal base pair sequence Commonly used to define DNA sequence changes that alter protein function מוטציה – השתנות ברצף הנורמאלי של זיווגי הבסיסים

Mutation DNA replication is extremely accurate, BUT … –Errors in polymerization occur – מוטציות במהלך הרפליקציה –Environmental factors, such as chemicals and ultraviolet radiation, can alter DNA – מוטציות כתוצאה מגורמים סביבתיים Irreversible changes to the cellular DNA can be lethal שינויים לא הפיכים יכולים להיות קטלנים Non-lethal changes can cause a heritable alteration of the genetic information, called a mutation Genetic changes are more noticeable in germ line cells than in somatic cells Systems exist for the repair of damaged DNA

הזדקנות

A human DNA repair defect: Xeroderma pigmentosum Multiple skin cancers due to unrepaired UV damage to DNA

A human DNA repair defect: Bloom's syndrome

Xeroderma pigmentosum

Xeroderma Pigmentosum (XP) and DNA Repair Defects XP is an autosomal recessive disease associated with dry skin, freckling, corneal ulceration, and skin tumors Many patients die before age 30 from metastases of malignant skin tumors One form of XP is produced by a defect in the human endonuclease that removes pyrimidine dimers Mutations in at least seven other genes involved in repairing UV-damaged DNA can cause XP

DNA replication must accurately replicate 6 x 10 9 base pairs every time a human cell divides – בכל חלוקת תא יש להכפיל שישה טרליון נוקלאוטדים In man we see one new mutation per gene per 100,000 cells per cell cycle. (spontaneous mutation frequency) – באדם מוטציה אחת בכל מאה אלף חלוקות תא. Spontaneous mutagenesis and errors in DNA replication i.e. 1 error per bp incorporated

DNA polymerases have two main methods for ensuring accuracy: (a)Base selection (b) Proofreading Only AT and GC base pairs fit properly in the active site of the polymerase If a wrong base is inserted, then it is removed and replaced with the correct one before the next one is added

Induced mutagenesis Can be caused by environmental agents that damage DNA: UV light X-rays and  -rays Chemical carcinogens e.g. cigarette smoke DNA damage can lead to mutations unless it is removed by DNA repair enzymes Unrepaired damage can have serious consequences

פולימורפיזים 1000

Somatic vs. germ line mutations Somatic ((גוף mutations can lead to cancer Germ (נבט/ראשוני) line mutations can lead to birth defects (מום מולד) Most mutations cause neither –Some fall in non-coding DNA –Others are silent רוב המוטציות אינן גורמות למחלות מכיוון שאינן פוגעות בנוקלאוטיד המעורב בתהליך התבטאות הגנים (אינטר-גני או אינטרונים)

( UV ) קרינה מיננת

העברה טרנסלוקציה מוטציה נקודתית

תדירות המוטציות

האם נזקי קרינת נחשבים למוטציות ספונטניות? 1. לא, מכיוון שניתן לא להיחשף לשמש. 2. כן, אין אפשרות להימנע מחשיפה לשמש, ולכל קרינה אחרת שמקורה לא מהשמש. 3. תשובה 1 +2 נכונות. 4. אין מספיק אינפורמציה על מנת לענות תשובה נכונה.

Natural causes of mutations מוטציות שנגרמות ע"י גורם טבעי Base tautomerization – שינויים טאוטומרים UV damage – נזקי קרינה Spontaneous deamination - דאמינציות

הבסיסים עוברים בצורה נדירה השתנות ספונטנית רברסבילית - שינוים טאוטומרים שינוי טאוטומרי בזמן הרפליקציה יוביל לזיווג בסיסים לא תקין

טאוטומרי

כיצד שינוי טאוטומרי מוביל לזיווג בסיסים שגוי

define the following types of mutations Transitions Transversions Multisite mutations including –Inversions –Duplications –Deletions –Insertions –Substitutions

define the following types of mutations Point mutations including –Substitutions –Insertions –Deletions –Duplications –Inversions

define the following types of mutations Point mutations including –Substitutions –Insertions –Deletions –Duplications –Inversions

define the following types of mutations For substitutions you should be able to further define –Missense mutations –Nonsense mutations –Samesense mutations

Point mutations Involve only one or a few nucleotides Arise during DNA replication Require two errors –An error during DNA replication –Failure to correct that error

Types of point mutations Substitutions: GATC CATC Insertion: GATC GGATC Deletion: GATC GTC Duplication: GATC GAGATC Inversion: GATC GTAC

Types of substitutions Missense: Results in an amino acid substitution Nonsense: Results in a stop codon (TAG, TAA, TGA) Samesense: No effect (silent mutation)

What is the first defense against mutations? 3’ to 5’ exonuclease activity of the polymerases

UV Radiation and Pyrimidine Dimers UV radiation ( nm) induces the formation of dimers between adjacent thymine residues Cytosine-cytosine and thymine-cytosine dimers occur less frequently These pyrimidine dimers disrupt the structure of the double helix, blocking replication until the lesion is repaired

כימיקלים שחודרים לDNA נראים דומים לנוקלאוטידים אבל גורמים לזיווגי בסיסים לא נכונים כימיקלים שמוסיפים או מחסירים קבוצות הקשורות לבסיסים גורמים לזיווגי בסיסים לא נכונים התוצאה מוטציות נקודתיות בDNA במהלך הרפליקציה

Mutations and Cancer Mutations that affect nonessential DNA or that have negligible effects on a gene ’ s function are called silent mutations Many mutations are detrimental, and a correlation exists between the accumulation of mutations and cancer New chemicals, such as pharmaceuticals, must be tested for carcinogenic potential Standard animal tests for carcinogenesis are lengthy and expensive The simple Ames test measures the potential of a given chemical to promote mutations in a specialized bacterial strain

The Ames Test for Mutagenesis S. typhimurium having a defect in histidine biosynthesis are plated on a histidine-free medium Chemical to be tested is placed on a disk of filter paper in the center of the culture plate Revertant bacterial colonies are caused by mutagens 80% to 90% of compounds found to be carcinogenic in animal tests are mutagens in the Ames test

קרצינוגנים

Intercalating Agents Intercalating agents slip in between stacked base pairs Distance between base pairs is doubled by an intercalating agent Insertions or deletions of one or more nucleotides can occur during the replication of such distorted DNA

דיאמינציות

Chemical Mutagens Classes of damage produced by chemical mutagens –Point mutations: one base pair is replaced by another –Insertions or deletions: one or more nucleotide pairs are inserted in or deleted from DNA Important types of chemical mutagens –Alkylating agents אלקילציות –Deaminating agents דיאמינציות –Intercalating agents אינטרקלציות

דאמינציה - Deamination of Cytosine Nitrous acid can be formed from nitrite and nitrate salts Nitrous acid oxidatively deaminates aromatic amines Cytosine is converted to uracil upon treatment with nitrous acid, causing a GC to AT transition Cytosine sometimes spontanteously deaminates to uracil, indicating why DNA contains thymine rather than uracil קבוצת אמין About 3% of the cytosine residues are methylated (intentionally).

באחת מתאי הבת תהיה מוטציה נקודתית "התיקון" ע"י BER About 50% of the time the G is “corrected” to A resulting in a mutation

Alkylating Agents Alkylating agents such as dimethyl sulfate are electrophiles Such agents react most often with the nucleophilic N7 position of the guanine base Alkylation at N7 can generate an apurinic site in DNA Point mutations occur when guanine is replaced by another base DNA methylation can be useful אלקילציות התיקון ע"י BER

רדיקלים חופשיים

Chemical mutagens סיכום – כימיקלים שגורמים למוטציות Chemicals that accelerate the deamidation reaction –מאיצים דיאמינציה Base analogues – אנלוגים לבסיסים Alkylating agents – מבצעים אלקילציה Intercalation agents - אינטרקלטורים

+ +

מבנה הסליל הכפול dsDNA *הסליל מפותל סביב ציר מרכזי *הבסיסים פונים למרכז הציר

Incorrect bases can “swing out” facilitating identification by the DNA repair apparatus

כיצד שינוי טאוטומרי מוביל לזיווג בסיסים שגוי

באחת מתאי הבת תהיה מוטציה נקודתית "התיקון" ע"י BER

Alkylating Agents Alkylating agents such as dimethyl sulfate are electrophiles Such agents react most often with the nucleophilic N7 position of the guanine base Alkylation at N7 can generate an apurinic site in DNA Point mutations occur when guanine is replaced by another base DNA methylation can be useful אלקילציות התיקון ע"י BER

Intercalating Agents Intercalating agents slip in between stacked base pairs Distance between base pairs is doubled by an intercalating agent Insertions or deletions of one or more nucleotides can occur during the replication of such distorted DNA

Overview of DNA repair pathways A. Base excision repair B. Nucleotide excision repair. C. Mismatch repair D. Double-strand break repair by homologous recombination. E. Double-strand break by end joining

מוטציות שמתרחשות במהלך הרפליקציה יתוקנו (אם אפשר) ע"י DNA פולימראז כאלה שלא תוקנו במהלך הרפליקציה יתוקנו מיד בסיומה ע"י MR מוטציות שאינן במסגרת הרפליקציה יתוקנו בכל זמן ע"י BER או NER

Three general types of DNA repair pathways: 1)Direct Repair 2)Base excision Repair 3)Nucleotide excision repair Direct repair

DNA Repair Many DNA repair mechanisms exist, even in E. coli Systems include simple mechanisms to reverse base modifications and multienzyme systems O 6 -methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase transfers the methyl group from O6-alkylated guanine to one of its Cys residues DNA photolyases reverse pyrimidine dimers –Found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, but not humans –Contain cofactors that use light energy to mediate electron transfer to the dimer, reversing the cyclization

Base excision repair

uvrAB recognize the unpair bases

מנגנון תיקון של דימרים של תימין לא במהלך הרפליקציה NER

מנגנון תיקון של דימרים של תימין לא במהלך הרפליקציה

Base-Excision Repair DNA glycosylases cleave the glycosidic bonds of altered nucleotides, leaving an apurinic or an apyrimidinic (AP) site Such sites also commonly occur through spontaneous depurination Deoxyribose residue is cleaved by an AP endonuclease DNA polymerase removes several residues and fills in the gap Nick sealed by DNA ligase

Repair of the daughter strand GGATC CTAG Parent New GGATC TCTAG Parent New GGATC CCTAG Parent New DNA Pol I and ligase Nickase and exonuclease I

Base-excision repair סיכום Deaminated bases are recognized Enzymes remove the base

Mismatch repair

פועל פעם אחת במהלך הרפליקציה. חייב להבחין בין גדיל חדש לישן (ע"י המתילים). לאחר השלמת התהליך הגדיל החדש עובר מתילציה. משפר דיוק רפליקציה פי Occurs just after replication Improves accuracy fold Must distinguish the parent from the daughter strand Occurs just after replication Improves accuracy fold Must distinguish the parent from the daughter strand

מה ההבדל בין תיקון דנא במנגנון ה- mismatch repair (MR) לבין מנגנון ה- nucleotide excision repair (NER) ? 1. שניהם פועלים בכל מהלך מחזור התא 2. ה-MR פועל בשלב ה-G1 בעוד שה-NER בשלב ה-M במחזור התא. 3. ה-MR פועל בשלב ה-M בעוד שה-NER בשלב ה-G1 במחזור התא. 4. ה-MR פועל בשלב ה-G0 בעוד שה-NER בשלב ה-G1 במחזור התא.

Instability: Mutation and DNA repair DNA repair –E-coli mismatch repair –Human mismatch repair

Instability: Mutation and DNA repair DNA repair –Human mismatch repair

Mismatch repair Occurs just after replication Improves accuracy fold Must distinguish the parent from the daughter strand

What happens when mismatch repair fails in humans? Missing enzymes homologous to MutS and MutL Patients usually die by age 30 Disease: hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal (מעי גס) cancer (HPCC) 1 in 200 people affected

Nucleotide Excision Repair (NER) NER involves the removal of an oligonucleotide containing a lesion and replacement of the resulting gap Three enzymatic activities are responsible for this process in E. coli 1.UvrABC endonuclease 2.DNA Pol I 3.DNA ligase NER mechanisms are similar in humans, but are much more complex

תיקון דימרים של תימין לא במהלך רפליקציה Nucleotide excision repair

סט שקופיות נוסף שמציג את מנגנון ה- 1NER

סט שקופיות נוסף שמציג את מנגנון ה- 2 NER

3 NER

(NER) Nucleotid Excision Repair

Nucleotide-excision repair סיכום Enzymes recognize a kink in the DNA Nicking Removal of the damaged strand DNA polymerization Ligation

A T A A C T G C A C G Repair enzymes Repair enzymes remove damaged region Gap refilled by DNA polymerase and DNA ligase Correct sequence restored Excision repair of thymine dimers (UV-induced) A T A A C T G C A C G T G T A T T A TT A T A A C T G C G A C G T T=T UV

Double strand breaks can give rise to translocations Novel genes formed at the fusion junctions can have deleterious effects

Homologous End-Joining recovers information from the homologous chromosome Information lost Information restored A Crossing over

Homologous End-Joining recovers information from the homologous chromosome A Note: The sequence of the paternal chromosome is now identical to the maternal chromosome in the repaired region -- ie. heterozygosity is lost

Occurs During Meiosis

Meiotic recombination results in swapping of large regions between homologous chromosomes

Overview of DNA repair pathways A. Base excision repair B. Nucleotide excision repair. C. Mismatch repair D. Double-strand break repair by homologous recombination. E. Double-strand break by end joining

תיקון דימרים של תימין במהלך רפליקציה

תיקון דימרים של תימין במהלך רפליקציה

אופן הקישור של חלבון RecA

Post replication recombination repair

Double-strand break repair

Post replication recombination repair

תיקון דימרים של תימין במהלך רפליקציה

SOS repair

Overview of DNA repair pathways A. Base excision repair B. Nucleotide excision repair. C. Mismatch repair D. Double-strand break repair by homologous recombination. E. Double-strand break by end joining

Homologues recombination