Writing Workshop Physiotherapy Year 2 Íde O’Sullivan and Lawrence Cleary Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Workshop outline Getting started: Motivation and time management Key consideration: The writing process The rhetorical situation Academic writing style Critical appraisal Structuring your paper Scientific style Strategies to develop writing: Peer review Regional Writing Centre

Getting Started Writing and Keeping Going Dealing with fatigue, boredom and lack of momentum What motivates/demotivates you when it comes to a writing task? Fears and anxieties?

Regional Writing Centre Anxieties and fears What do you worry about or struggle when faced with a writing task? How will you overcome these anxieties and fears? Regional Writing Centre

Difficulties associated with writing Anxiety and fear of writing Lack of confidence and motivation Fear of making your writing public Cracking the codes of academic writing Getting started Getting stuck – writers’ block Lack of guidance, practice and feedback Misconceptions of writing Good writing skills are innate X Think first, then write X Dealing with these anxieties and fears Readings: How to be a Student (Moore and Murphy 2006) 66 Playing to your strengths 68 Controlling worry 99 Believing in yourself Focus on your strengths as a writer: What are these strengths? Are there areas where you need to improve as a writer? Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre It is not too late Take stock of where you are now Outline your research project Make plans based on the time that is left Organise your time accordingly Get writing Keep writing Get a writing buddy Allow time for revision and to put it all together Let family and friends know Be selfish with your time Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Where am I? What writing have you done and what writing do you need to do in order to complete your paper for PY434 on time? Keep writing non-stop for 5 minutes. Write in sentences. Do not edit or censor your writing. Private writing -- no one will read it. Discuss what you have written in pairs. Freewriting – Getting started What impact did the previous exercise have on you? How might this type of writing activity be useful? Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Getting started Where and when do you write? Why are you not writing? “I don’t feel ready to write.” Writers’ block Getting unstuck Writing to prompts/freewriting (write anything) Set writing goals Write regularly Integrate writing into your thinking Break it down into a manageable process Weekly timetable – Map your time – Be realistic! – Develop a regular pattern! Dealing with issues of time “Binge” and “snack” writing (Murray, 2005) Do I need a big block of time to write productively? “Short bursts of productive writing” (Murray and Moore, 2006:17) Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Outlining (Murray 2006) Title and draft introduction Level 1 outlining Main headings Level 2 outlining Sub-headings Level 3 outlining Decide on content Define your writing tasks Ordering your ideas Aligning your outline with your summary Set goals for writing Checks coherence of your argument Imposes appropriate word limits Decide on content Write your outline in sentences: The aim of this section is………” Set word limit for sections and sub-sections “Defining writing tasks first may make it easier to find time slots for them” (Murray). Regional Writing Centre

‘Writing in layers’ (Murray 2006:125-27) Outline the structure: write your section heading for the research paper. Write a sentence or two on the contents of each section. List out sub-headings for each section. Write an introductory paragraph for each section. At the top of each section, write the word count requirement, draft number and date. Define your writing tasks Ordering your ideas Aligning your outline with your summary Set goals for writing Checks coherence of your argument Imposes appropriate word limits Decide on content Write your outline in sentences: The aim of this section is………” Set word limit for sections and sub-sections “Defining writing tasks first may make it easier to find time slots for them” (Murray). Regional Writing Centre

Key Considerations

Key stages in the process Pre-writing Drafting Revision Editing and Proofreading One way to divide up the stages that one goes through is as presented here. A Reiterative Process Understanding the essay question and the instructions is one part of the planning process: What are some other tasks performed in this stage? ...In the Drafting stage? ...in the Revision stage? Brainstorming Mind maps Research Reading/note-taking – the importance of referencing properly Researching to find the truth, not just someone who agrees with you. Planning and organising your essay Getting started Structuring your essays (paragraphing) Developing an argument The importance of evidence/theories/data Drafting and redrafting your essay Editing and proofreading your essay Simple plan – introduction, middle, end Regional Writing Centre

The rhetorical situation Occasion Topic Audience Purpose Writer Occasion: Time / Space restrictions. How much time, how many words, in what form? Audience: Expectations: stylistic conventions, formatting issues, academic rigor? Discourse community. Topic: What do I already know; what do I need to know? How do I discover? Purpose: Express my feelings, inform, persuade? Academic persuasion. Writer: What are my strengths and weaknesses? What is my experience with academic writing? What strategies have I developed? What criteria do I use to self-evaluate how well I am doing? Are my strategies working? What emotional response do I have to assigned writing tasks? Regional Writing Centre 13

Organising principles Research question Thesis Hypothesis Regional Writing Centre 14

Stylistic differences that mark academic writing Complexity Formality Objectivity Accuracy Precision Explicitness Hedging Responsibility (Gillet 2008) Differences that mark academic writing. Regional Writing Centre 15

Academic writing style Hedge. Distinguish between absolutes and probabilities. Absolutes are 100% certain. Probabilities are less than 100% certain. Be responsible. Provide traceable evidence and justifications for any claims you make or any opinions you have formed as a result of your research. Regional Writing Centre

Persuasion and truth in academic writing Because they are argumentative, academic writing tends to be persuasive. An argument should be persuasive, but don’t sacrifice truth in favour of persuasion. Academic inquiry is a truth-seeking pursuit. facts are distinguished from opinions. relative truths are distinguished from absolute truths. The integrity of the conclusions reached in an academic essay or report is based on its honest pursuit of truth. Expository writing emphasizes the topic. It focuses on facts and ideas. Persuasive writing emphasizes the reader. This type of writing focuses on changing the reader’s mind or moving the reader to action. However, academic writing never sacrifices truth in its effort to persuade. Claims are qualified. Regional Writing Centre

Key tasks for academic writers Participating in academic conversations Developing and advancing balanced arguments Exploring your personal writing process Developing strategies that work for you Essay question is an invitation to participate in an already ongoing discussion Regional Writing Centre 18

Regional Writing Centre Cracking the codes Analysing the genre/text and modelling Generate a list of the important criteria which will make your writing more effective Ask yourself the following questions: How is the paper structured? How is the contribution articulated? What level of context is provided? What level of detail is used? How long are the different sections? Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Cracking the codes What organisational features/patterns are in evidence? How are arguments and counterarguments presented and structured? What types of evidence are important? What stylistic features are prominent? Is the text cohesive? How does the author achieve such cohesion? What kind(s) of persuasive devises does the author employ? Voice? www.uefap.com/writing Regional Writing Centre

Critical Appraisal

Reporting the work of others Making use of the ideas of other people is one of the most important aspects of academic writing because it shows awareness of other people’s work; it shows that you can use their ideas and findings; it shows you have read and understood the material you are reading; it shows where your contribution fits in; it supports the points you are making. (Gillet 2008) Essential skill. Regional Writing Centre

Reporting the work of others We report another author’s ideas by using paraphrase, summary, synthesis and quotation, and we use introductory phrases and reporting verbs to communicate our relationship to the ideas that we are reporting. Compare, for example: Brown (1983: 231) claims that a far more effective approach is ... Brown (1983: 231) points out that a far more effective approach is ... A far more effective approach is ... (Brown 1983: 231) It is important that we make it clear from whom and where the ideas we are discussing originated and what is our point of view or stance in relation to those ideas. Ask students to express the difference between the three. Elicit responses. Allow them to predict, then give an informed take on the three. The first one is Brown's opinion with no indication about your opinion. The second one is Brown's opinion, which you agree with, and the third is your opinion, which is supported by Brown. Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Critical thinking McPeck (1981:8 cited in Borg 2008:13) defines critical thinking as “the prosperity and skill to engage in an activity with reflective scepticism”. “Critical thinking: is clear, precise, accurate, relevant, logical and consistent integrates a controlled sense of scepticism or disbelief about claims, assertions and conclusions (i.e. not taking information and positions at face value involves interrogating existing information for strengths, weaknesses and gaps is deliberately and demonstrably free from bias and prejudice.” (Paul and Elder 2006 cited in Borg 2008:13) Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Good reasoning Key features of good reasoning “Reasoning: has a purpose is shaped by and expressed through concepts and ideas is based on data, information and evidence involves making inferences and interpretations based on the data and evidence in order to draw conclusions is based on assumptions that are explicit and clear is carried out from a particular point of view has consequences and implications.” (Paul and Elder 2006 cited in Borg 2008:13) Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Critical thinking How can you bring a critical orientation to your work? What questions should you ask when reading and writing in order to develop critical and analytical thinking skills? Regional Writing Centre

Structuring your paper Keep in mind the assignment question, any questions you need to answer in order to answer the assignment question, and the instruction word as you plan your essay. From beginning to end, the point of order is the initial question, claim or hypothesis. Do not “write down all you know about…”

Regional Writing Centre Structure Preliminaries Main Text End Matter The materials included in each section are usually set by the particular college or department to whom the report is submitted. For FYP students who are submitting to the Languages and Cultural Studies Department, the material to be contained in each part is assigned by the College of Humanities and can be found in the Final Year Project Booklet for the Class of 2005. The only difference between the printed version and that posted online (http://www.humanities.ul.ie/fyp.htm#_SECTION_4) is that the printed version requires students to include an Option title on the cover page. Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre The main text Introduction Development Conclusion How the writing is structured will depend on the genre, i.e. essay, literature review, reflection. UEfAP: Academic Writing <Genres Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre The main text: Essays Purpose: Present a clear argument Structure Introduction Development of ideas Conclusion Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre The introduction In academic writing, an introduction, or opening, has four purposes: To introduce the topic of the essay To indicate the context of the conversation through background information To give some indication of the overall plan of the essay To catch the reader’s attention, usually by convincing the reader of its relevance. This idea of ‘context’ and ‘relevance’ is important. Too often a student tries to foist some inappropriate idea of relevance onto the reader. If a student is well versed in the discourse of her area of study, then she’ll know what is relevant to these readers. And to say something is relevant because it is important is just begging the question. Too often students use logical fallacies to foist relevance onto a reader. Advice: get involved in the discussion. Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre The introduction The introduction has two parts: General statements. General statements attract a reader’s attention and give background information on the topic. A thesis statement States the main topic. Sometimes indicates sub-topics. Will sometimes indicate how the essay is to be organised. The instructor should indicate to the student that this ‘background’ is really an attempt to establish the context of the topic in the thesis statement. That ‘context’ is largely pertinent to the academic discourse which is the conversation into which the writer is entering. Examples of thesis statements with no sub-topics mentioned: Being the oldest son has more disadvantages than advantages (Oshima and Hogue, 1999: 103). The large movement of people from rural to urban areas has major effects on cities (Oshima and Hogue, 1999: 103). Example of a thesis statement with sub-topics named: The large movement of people from rural to urban areas has major effects on a city’s ability to provide housing, employment, and adequate sanitation services (Oshima and Hogue, 1999: 103). These sub-topics suggest that the discussion in this essay will be divided between housing, employment, and adequate sanitation services and will be focused on evidence of the inability of cities to provide them, with further evidence that it is due to a migratory influx. Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre In brief…. The introduction should be funnel shaped Begin with broad statements. Make these statements more and more specific as the writer narrows the scope of the topic and comes to the problem. Be sure that the question, hypothesis or claim is one that can be handled in a report of the length specified. This question, hypothesis or claim is your thesis statement. Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre The conclusion How you conclude your paper, like everything else in writing, largely depends on your purpose. Generally, though, a conclusion ends by reminding the reader of the main points of the argument in support of your thesis. Otherwise, you may end with a reflection, a call to action, an impact question (indicating, perhaps, that you see scope for future research), a quote, or advice. Regional Writing Centre

Elements of a good conclusion A conclusion should: Remind the reader of the main points of your argument Bring ‘closure to the interpretation of the data’ (Leedy 2001:291) Be clear Be logical Be credible Regional Writing Centre

Elements of a good conclusion A summary of the investigation, the results and the analysis A summary of the conclusions drawn from the analysis and discussion of the data / results An account of whether the research has answered the research question An assessment of whether the hypothesis or claim has been proved, disproved, or partially proved Regional Writing Centre

Elements of a good conclusion A discussionion of the implications of the findings A demonstrable awareness of the limitations of the outcome Suggestions for future developments – Remember: A summary alone of what you have done is a weak conclusion A final, strong, positive statement Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre In brief…… ‘Whatever kind of conclusion you decide on, it should not introduce new topics, apologize for any real or perceived failings in the paper, or merely stop or trail off. Make sure your paper has a clear sense of closure’. (Ebert et al. 1997:129) Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Flow Logical method of development Effective transition signals Good signposting Consistent point of view Conciseness (careful word choice) Clarity of expression Paragraph structure Unity Coherence Clarity of expression Avoid repetition of words Avoid repetition of ideas Delete redundant words Be direct: avoid using too many words Avoid ambiguity Avoid unclear pronoun reference Choose strong active verbs Use parallel constructions Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Paragraph structure What is a paragraph? Series of sentences Coherent (introduction, middle, end) Common theme Every sentence in a paragraph develops one topic or idea. Paragraphs signal the logically organised progression of ideas. The flow of information should be organised around themes and comments. The main idea in one paragraph should flow logically into the next. Shifts in the argument or changes in direction should be accurately signalled using appropriate adverbials, conjunctions, and prepositions. Paragraphing Use vs non-use Coherent vs incoherent Cohesive vs incohesive Unified vs Disjointed Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Paragraph structure Just as an essay is guided by a thesis statement, a paragraph is organised around its topic sentence. A topic sentence informs the reader of the topic to be discussed. A topic sentence contains controlling ideas which limit the scope of the discussion to ideas that are manageable in a paragraph. An example would be: ‘Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics’ (Oshima and Hogue, 1999: 17). The topic is ‘gold’. The unnamed ‘important characteristics’ control the scope of the paragraph. Only these two characteristics will be talked about in this paragraph. Controlling ideas must be able to be spoken of in a single paragraph. If a writer thinks that she needs more than a paragraph to talk about either one of these characteristics, then she should reframe the controlling idea in her topic sentence. Regional Writing Centre

Paragraph structure: Supporting sentences The sentences that follow expand upon the topic, using controlling ideas to limit the discussion. The main idea is supported by Evidence in the form of facts, statistics, theoretical probabilities, reputable, educated opinions, Illustrations in the form of examples and extended examples, and Argumentation based on the evidence presented. Qualifying statements indicate the limitations of the support or argument. Regional Writing Centre

Paragraph structure: Concluding sentences Not every paragraph needs a concluding sentence. Concluding sentences can either comment on the information in the text, or They can paraphrase the topic sentence. Regional Writing Centre

Paragraph structure: Unity Paragraphs should be unified. ‘Unity means that only one main idea is discussed in a paragraph. The main idea is stated in the topic sentence, and then each and every supporting sentence develops that idea’ (Oshima and Hogue 1999:18). Basically, ‘unity’ demands that digressions are kept to a minimum. ‘Coherence’ addresses a lot of issues, but the instructor can think of her own experiences with some of the papers she’s received. The biggest offence is usually pronoun references that haven’t any recognisable antecedent. What the hell is that? Good practices that aid in text coherence are: repetition of key nouns. Nouns are referential. Repetition can be boring, but that’s where a good thesaurus comes in. Use of consistent pronouns. Students should be aware that person or number shifts are confusing. They shouldn’t be changing ‘from you to he or she (change of person), or from he to they (change of number)’ (Oshima and Hogue, 1999: 42). Lastly, good use of transition signals (next slide) makes for an easier read. Regional Writing Centre

Paragraph structure: Coherence Coherence means that your paragraph is easy to read and understand because your supporting sentences are in some kind of logical order your ideas are connected by the use of appropriate transition signals your pronoun references clearly point to the intended antecedent and is consistent you have repeated or substituted key nouns. (Oshima and Hogue 2006:22) Show the connections and relationships between arguments so that sentences flow smoothly. Logical and smooth movement from one sentence to the next. Regional Writing Centre

Example: (Meei-Fang et al. 2007:471) People with dementia are particularly vulnerable to malnutrition: they have a decreased ability to understand directions and to express their needs verbally, are easily distracted from eating, prone to become agitated, and may use utensils incorrectly. Inability to feed oneself (eating dependency) is a major risk factor for malnutrition among older people living in long-term care settings (Abbasi & Rudman 1994, Durnbaugh et al. 1996). When people with dementia can no longer take food voluntarily, assistance is required although, as the disease progresses, even taking food with assistance can become difficult and, in some instances, tube-feeding may be required to supply nutrition. This form of feeding can, however, cause distress and anxiety, not only for the person being fed, but also for caregivers (Akerlund & Norberg 1985, Burgener & Shimer 1993). Regional Writing Centre

Scientific Writing Style

Stylistic features common to scientific and technical writing Sentences Short v. long Simple v. complex Vocabulary Short vs long phrases Ordinary vs grandiose Familiar vs unfamiliar Non-technical vs technical Concrete vs abstract Normal, comfortable idiomatic expression vs special, stiff scientific idioms Direct incisive phrasing vs roundabout, verbose phrasing 48 Regional Writing Centre 48

Stylistic features common to scientific and technical writing Verb Forms Active vs passive Personal vs impersonal Informal vs formal The passive has many benefits: It can defer or hide agency (first-person or gendered-person), and it can move the subject that is acting to a position in the predicate normally reserved for new information or information that the speaker / writer wishes the listener / reader to retain. One difficulty is that it is overused and used to construct clumbsy, unnecessarily cumbersome sentences. 49 Regional Writing Centre 49

Stylistic features common to scientific and technical writing Mechanics Spelling Capitalisation Punctuation: Careful use vs casual, random use 50 Regional Writing Centre 50

Strategies to Develop Writing: Peer Review

Dialogue about writing Peer-review Generative writing The “writing sandwich” (Murray 2005:85): writing, talking, writing Writing “buddies” (Murray and Moore 2006:102) Writers’ groups Engaging in critiques of one another’s work allows you to become effective critics of your own work. Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Writing a ‘page 98 paper’ My research question is … Researchers who have looked at this subject are … They argue that … Debate centres on the issue of … There is work to be done on … My research is closest to that of X in that … My contribution will be … (Murray 2006:104) Early: to establish direction/focus Associate your project with the literature Distinguish your project from the literature Build on research question/hypothesis Focus reading/thinking Manageable writing task: 325 words To develop thinking about your thesis thesis? Late: to focus thinking as you draft conclusion and revise your introduction (Murray, 2006: 105) Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre Resources Shannon Consortium Regional Writing Centre, UL http://www.ul.ie/rwc/ Using English for Academic Purposes http://www.uefap.com/index.htm The Writer’s Garden http://www. cyberlyber.com/writermain.htm The OWL at Purdue http://owl.english.purdue.edu/ The Writing Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill http://www.unc.edu/depts /wcweb/handouts/index.html Handout Regional Writing Centre 54

Regional Writing Centre Works cited Elbow, P. (1998) Writing without Teachers (2nd edition). New York: Oxford University Press. Elbow, P. and Belanoff, P. (2003) Being a Writer: A Community of Writers Revisited. New York: McGraw-Hill. McPeck, J. (1981) Critical Thinking and Education, New York: St. Martin’s Press. Moore, S. and Murphy, M. (2005) How to be a Student: 100 Great Ideas and Practical Hints for Students Everywhere. UK: Open University Press. Murray, R. (2005) Writing for Academic Journals. UK: Open University Press. Murray, R. and Moore, S. (2006) The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach. UK: Open University Press. Oshima, A. and Hogue, A. (2006) Writing Academic English, 4th edition. New York: Pearson Education. Paul, R. and Elder, L. (2006) The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking: Concepts and Tools, New York: The Foundation for Critical Thinking. Regional Writing Centre