Punctuation With examples blatantly stolen from Bill Bryson’s “A Dictionary of Troublesome Words.”

The Apostrophe: ’

Possessives. Possessives. Contractions. Contractions. NOT plurals. NOT plurals. But what about multiple possessives? But what about multiple possessives?

In conditions of shared ownership: Example: Two cats share a single water dish. Incorrect: "The white cat's and black cat's water dish." Correct: "The white cat and black cat's water dish."

Do the cats have separate water dishes? "The white cat's and the black cat's water dishes."

Use a possessive apostrophe for units of measure: Incorrect: "Ms. Tanovitz had nineteen years experience." Correct: "Ms. Tanovitz had nineteen years' experience."

The colon : Marks an introduction or indicates the start of a series. Not used to separate a verb from its object. Incorrect: "The four states bordering Texas are: New Mexico, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Louisiana.”

Correct: "Texas is bordered by four states: New Mexico, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Louisiana." Correct: "The four states bordering Texas are New Mexico, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Louisiana.”

The comma, When do you need a comma? 1. Use a comma when the information provided is clearly parenthetical.

Correct: "Mr. Lawson, the energy secretary, was unavailable for comment." Correct: "The ambassador, who arrived in Britain two days ago, yesterday met with the Prime Minister." In both statements, the sentence would read clearly without the phrase between commas.

Parse this statement without the parenthetical phrase: "At nine she won a scholarship to Millsfield, the private school, for bright children of the rich.”

2. Use a comma when the information is nonrestrictive. Nonrestrictive: "John Fowler's first novel, The Collector, was a bestseller." Restrictive (no comma needed): "John Fowler's novel The Collector was a bestseller."

Incorrect: "Mrs. Thatcher and her husband Denis left London yesterday.” Correct: “Mrs. Thatcher and her husband, Denis, left London yesterday.”

3. Use a comma with forms of address. Incorrect: "Good Morning America" Correct: "Good Morning, America"

Are you telling Mr. Herriot that you're choking? Correct: "I'm choking, Mr. Herriot" Incorrect "I'm choking Mr. Herriot"

4. Optional: Use a comma with interpolated words or phrases. Interpolated words and phrases? However, moreover, so, fortunately, contrary to popular opinion...

Examples: "However, when the roads are wet..." "Meanwhile, on the other side of town..." Not always necessary, but recommended.

The dash The dash — Used in pairs to enclose parenthetical matter. He fell there — cold and bleeding — on the stone marble floor. Used singly to indicate a sharp break in a sentence. He cried out — but no one came. Used to emphasize a point. Use dashes sparingly — not just to replace more appropriate punctuation.

Ellipsis... Used to indicate that material has been omitted. When ending a sentence with an ellipsis, a final period (making four, total) is not necessary.

The exclamation point! Used to show strong emotion. Correct: "Look! Up in the sky! It's Superman!" Incorrect: Virtually anywhere in formal writing.

The question mark? Appears at the end of a question. This isn't a problem for most people. However, it shouldn't appear at the end of a sentence that isn't a question. Question marks appear at the end of direct questions, but not at the end of indirect questions.

Direct questions: "How old are you?" "Why should I care?"

Indirect questions: "I asked how old you were." "Tell me why I should care."

“Quotation marks” Punctuation goes inside the quotation marks. “The Fish,” “Poetry,” and “The Monkeys” are in Marianne Moore's Selected Poems.

For quotes within quotes, use a single quotation mark. “He said ‘I will not go.’” (Note: Unable to find rules for quotes within quotes within quotes.)

Question marks in quotations: The question mark goes inside the quotation mark if the quotation is asking a question. Example: Timmy asked "Mommy, will you read me a bedtime story?"

The question mark goes outside the quotation mark if the overall statement is asking a question. Example: When Timmy asked you to read him a bedtime story, did you say "When Hell freezes over"?

Avoid quotation marks around indirect quotations. Incorrect: After leaving the scene of the domestic quarrel, the officer said "he was due for a coffee break."

Correct: After leaving the scene of the domestic quarrel, the officer said he was "due for a coffee break." Better still: After leaving the scene of the domestic quarrel, the officer said he was due for a coffee break.

The semicolon; The semicolon connects independent clauses not joined by a conjunction. "Injustice is relatively easy to bear; what stings is justice." - H.L. Mencken

It can also be used to separate items in a series containing internal punctuation. "The only sensible ends of literature are first, the pleasurable toil of writing; second, the gratification of one's family and friends; and lastly, the solid cash." - Nathaniel Hawthorne