Chapter 2.2 Game Design

2 Overview Game design as… full-time occupation is historically new field of practical study – even newer

3 Overview Folk games [Costikyan] “Traditional” games with cultural origins Examples: Tic-Tac-Toe (Naughts and Crosses) Chess Go Backgammon Poker

4 Overview This introduction covers: Terms Concepts Approach All from a workaday viewpoint

5 Overview There is no one “right” way to design There are many successful approaches Specific requirements and constraints of each project and team determine what works and what does not. This introduction is but a scratch

6 The Language of Games Game development – a young industry Standards are still being formulated Theory Practice Terminology

7 The Language of Games Debate continues over high-level views Lack of standard (concrete) definitions Game Play High-level concepts tricky to articulate

8 The Language of Games Workplace differences usually low-level Working terminology Example “actors” instead of “agents” “geo” instead of “model” Workflow – how things get done Individual responsibilities Processes under which work is performed

9 The Language of Games Why do we play? Not a designer’s problem What is the nature of games? Not a designer’s problem How is a game formed of parts? A designer’s problem

10 The Language of Games Our simplistic high-level definitions Easy to modify to fit multiple cultures Practical over metaphysically true play game aesthetics

11 Play and Game Play Interactions to elicit emotions Game Object of rule-bound play General enough to cover everything

12 Aesthetics and Frame Aesthetics Emotional responses during play Naïve practical approach, not classical Frame The border of a game’s context Inside the frame is in the game Outside the frame is real life

13 Approaching Design Computer games are an art form Game design practices can be taught Technical discipline like music, film, poetry The art of making dynamic models

14 Approaching Design Mental/Cognitive Concepts Beliefs Maps Examples: Locations Relationships Mathematical Equations Formulas Algorithms A model represents something

15 Approaching Design Abstract model Conceptual and idealized A tool for investigating specific questions Simplifies thinking to help understand problems May include assumptions thought to be false Abstract game One rule The piece is moved to the open square

16 A Player-Game Model A model of the player – game relationship

17 A Player-Game Model Mechanics Things the player does Interface Communication between player and game System Underlying structure and behavior

18 Control and State Variables Defined by Isaacs in Differential Games Control variables Inputs from players State variables Quantities indicating game state

19 Play Mechanics Gameplay Feelings of playing a particular game Activities engaged in a particular game (Play/game) Mechanics Specific to game activities “What the player does”

20 Seven Stages of Action Execution Intention to act Sequence of action Execution of action sequence Evaluation Evaluating interpretations Interpreting perceptions Perceiving states

21 Seven Stages of Action A goal is formed Models the desired state The desired result of an action Examples: Have a glass of water in hand Capture a queen Taste ice cream

22 Seven Stages of Action Goals turned into intentions to act Specific statements of what is to be done

23 Seven Stages of Action Intentions put into an action sequence The order internal commands will be performed

24 Seven Stages of Action The action sequence is executed The player manipulates control variables

25 Seven Stages of Action The state of the game is perceived State variables are revealed via the interface

26 Seven Stages of Action Player interprets their perceptions Interpretations based upon a model of the system

27 Seven Stages of Action Player evaluates the interpretations Current states are compared with intentions and goals

28 Seven Stages of Action Donald Norman’s approximate model Actions not often in discrete stages Not all actions progress through all stages

29 Seven Stages of Action Scales to… …an individual mechanic A “primary element” Examples: Move Shoot Talk …an entire game A generalized model of interaction

30 Designer and Player Models Systems are built from designer mental models Design models may only anticipate player goals

31 Designer and Player Models Players build mental models from mechanics Based upon interactions with the system image The reality of the system in operation Not from direct communication with designers Player and designer models can differ significantly

32 Core Mechanics Typical patterns of action Fundamental mechanics cycled repeatedly Examples: Action shooters – run, shoot, and explore Strategy game – explore, expand, exploit, exterminate referred to as the “four X’s”

33 Premise The metaphors of action and setting Directs the player experience Provides a context in which mechanics fit Players map game states to the premise

34 Premise Story is the typical example of premise Time Place Characters Relationships Motivations Etc.

35 Premise Premise may also be abstract Tetris operates under a metaphor The metaphor: arranging colored shapes Encompasses all game elements Player discussions use the language of the premise

36 Premise Games are models Activities being modeled form premise Actions may appear similar in model Usually are fundamentally quite different Sports games are good examples Playing video games isn’t like playing the sport

37 Premise Goes beyond setting and tone Alters the players mental model Basis of player understanding and strategy

38 Premise Possible Capable of happening in the real world Plausible Possible within the unique world of premise “Makes sense” within the game’s premise Consistent with the premise as understood

39 Choice and Outcome Choice A question asked of the player Outcome The end result of a given choice Possibility space Represents the set of possible events A “landscape” of choice and outcome

40 Choice and Outcome Consequence or Weight The significance of an outcome Greater consequences alter the course of the game more significantly Choices are balanced first by consequence

41 Choice and Outcome Well-designed choice Often desirable and undesirable effects Should relate to player goals Balanced against neighboring choices Too much weight to every choice is melodrama Orthogonal choices – distinct from others Not just “shades of grey”

42 Qualities of Choice Terms in which to discuss choices Hollow – lacking consequence Obvious – leaves no choice to be made Uninformed – arbitrary decision Dramatic – strongly connects to feelings Weighted – good and bad in every choice Immediate – effects are immediate Long-term – effects over extended period Orthogonal – choices distinct from each other

43 Goals and Objectives Objectives Designed tasks players must perform Rigid requirements – formal Goals An intentional outcome Notions that direct player action Scales all levels of motivation From selecting particular strategies… …to basic motor actions (e.g. pressing a button)

44 Goals and Objectives Objectives and goals can differ Players goals reflect their understanding of the game Designers must consider how the game communicates with players Affordances – the apparent ways something can be used

45 Resources Things used by agents to reach goals To be meaningful, they must be… Useful – provide some value Limited – in total or rate of supply

46 Economies Systems of supply, distribution, consumption Questions regarding game economies: What resources exist? How and when will resources be used? How and when will resources be supplied? What are their limits?

47 Player Strategy People usually reason with commonsense A view of linear causation – cause and effect Complex systems do not behave linearly Players need information to support linear strategy

48 Game Theory Branch of economics Studies decision making Utility A measure of desire associated with an outcome Payoffs The utility value for a given outcome Preference The bias of players towards utility

49 Game Theory Rational Players Abstract model players – not real people Always try to maximize their potential utility Solve problems using pure logic Always fully aware of the state of the game

50 Game Theory Games of skill One-player games Outcomes determined solely by choices Games of Chance One-player games Outcomes determined in whole or part by nature (chance) Games of Strategy Competitions between two or more players

51 Game Theory Decision under certainty Players know the outcome of any decision Risky decisions Probabilities of nature are known Decision under uncertainty Probabilities of nature are unknown

52 Interface Input, presentation, and feedback. Input Player to game Output Game to player

53 Interface Contains both hardware, software, and performance elements. Hardware such as game pads Software such as engines Performance such as pressing a button

54 Interface Graphical user interface (GUI) A visual paradigm of control

55 Interface Typical perspectives: First-person Over-the-shoulder (OTS) Overhead (top-down) Side Isometric

56 Interface General categories of audio Music Sound effects Dialog

57 Interface Music Powerful tool for establishing mood and theme

58 Interface Controls Physical input devices Control inputs User manipulations of the controls They are not strategies Example: a sequence of buttons to perform a combo Strategies involve deciding when to perform

59 Interface Key map or control table A diagram showing control input, action, and context

60 Interface Control diagrams Show input, action, and context

61 Interface Front-end In application software The visible portion of the application In games GUI elements not displayed during play

62 Interface HUD (Head-Up Display) Displays during play Shows and other information difficult to present directly in the game environment Examples Scores Resource levels Mini Map Chat Alerts Level

63 Interface Mapping An understood relationship between two things Especially the relationship of a model to its subject Examples

64 HCI and Cognitive Ergonomics HCI – Human-Computer Interaction Study of… Communication between users and computers How people design, build, and use interfaces Better support for cooperative work Cognitive Ergonomics Analyzes the cognitive representations and processes involved with performing tasks

65 Design of Everyday Things Norman’s five principles of design Visibility Making the parts visible Mappings Understandable relationships between controls and actions Affordances The perceived uses of an object Constraints Prevent the user from doing things they shouldn’t Feedback Reporting what has been done and accomplished

66 Systems System A set of interrelated components Their function and relationships form a whole Architecture The particular arrangement of system elements Game systems exist to enable play mechanics Relationships between components determine how the system works to produce results

67 Systems Objects Pieces of a system Attributes Properties determining what objects are Behaviors Actions the objects can perform Relationships How the behavior and attributes of objects affect each other while the system operates

68 Systems Two general approaches to design Special case Experiences built one scene/level at a time Anticipate states while pre-scripting events Solved by discovering the intentions of the designer Systemic General behaviors are designed Scenes/Levels are specific configuations Some events may still be pre-scripted Solved by understanding the system

69 Systems Emergent complexity Behaviors that cannot be predicted simply from the rules of a system Emergence Coined by George Henry Lewes in 1873 See: John Conway’s Game of Life

70 Systems Dynamics The behavior of systems over time Generalizing dynamic behavior is hard Dynamics determined by a given architecture

71 Systems Cybernetics Study of communication, control, and regulation

72 Systems A basic cybernetic system has: Sensor – detects a condition Thermometer Comparator – evaluates the information Switch Activator – alters the environment when triggered by the comparator

73 Systems Feedback The portion of a system’s output that is returned into the system Feedback Loop The path taken by the feedback

74 Systems Positive feedback Leads to runaway behavior Difficult to make use of Negative feedback Leads to goal seeking behaviors Most common form in systems

75 Systems Negative feedback Stabilizes the game Forgives the loser Prolongs the game Magnifies late successes Positive feedback Destabilizes the game Rewards the winner Can end the game Magnifies early successes Marc Leblanc

76 Systems System Dynamics Created by Jay Forrester 1956, MIT A discipline for modeling and simulation Originally a tool for policy analysis Applicable to any system

77 Constraints Platform General description of hardware and software Personal computer – PC, Mac, etc. Console – Game Cube, PlayStation, Xbox, etc. Handheld – DS, Game Boy Advance, PSP, etc. Mobile device – Cel Phones, NGage, PDA, etc. Arcade – custom vending games (e.g. Time Crisis)

78 Constraints Game Saves Save triggers Save-anywhere Save points Coded text saves

79 Genres Genre – a category describing generalities of conventions, style, and content

80 Genres Action Adventure Arcade Casual Education Fighting First-person shooter Platform Racing Rhythm Role-Playing (RPG) Simulation Sports Strategy Puzzle Traditional

81 Audiences Target audience Group of expected consumers Demographics Study of relevant economic and social statistics about a given population Demographic variables The relevant factors

82 Audiences Market Demographic segmentation of consumers Market segments Smaller sub-segment of the market; more tightly defined Demographic profile Typical consumer attributes in a market

83 Audiences Heavy Users Those of the numeric minority of potential users responsible for majority of sales of any product “80/20 rule” Hardcore gamer Game industry term for heavy video game users Casual gamer Game industry term for all other gamers

84 Audiences Typically assumptions of the hardcore: Play games over long sessions Discuss games frequently and at length Knowledgeable about the industry Higher threshold for frustration Desire to modify or extend games creatively Have the latest game systems Engage in competition with themselves, the game, and others

85 Audiences Why We Play Games – Nicole Lazzaro Internal experience Enjoyment from visceral activities Hard fun Challenge of strategy and problem solving Easy fun Intrigue and curiosity – exploration and adventure Social experience Stimulating social faculties – competition, teamwork, bonding, and recognition

86 Iterating Waterfall method Development methodology Design and production are broken into phases Iterative development Practice of producing things incrementally Refining and re-refining the product

87 Iterating Prototypes Early working models of the product Used to test ideas and techniques Physical prototypes Non-electronic models; physical materials Software prototypes Used regularly during iterative development

88 Iterating Software testing Process of verifying performance and reliability of a software product Tester Person trained in methods of evaluation Bug Discrepancy between expected and actual behavior Problem/Bug report Description of the behavior of the discrepancy

89 Iterating Focus test Testing session using play-testers Testers represent the target audience Lots of feedback at one time Data can be compromised by group think

90 Iterating Tuning Developing solutions by adjusting systems Iterations are faster Changes are less dramatic Balance Equilibrium in a relationship Player relationships, mechanics, systems, etc.

91 Iterating Intransitive relationships Multiple elements offer weaknesses and strengths relative to each other as a whole Balanced as a group Example: Rock-Paper-Scissors (RPS)

92 Creativity Ability to create Ability to produce an idea, action, or object considered new and valuable

93 Creativity Classic approach - Graham Wallace Preparation Background research and comprehension Incubation Mulling things over Insight Sudden illumination – Eureka! Evaluation Validating revealed insights Elaboration Transforming the idea into substance

94 Creativity Brainstorming Generating ideas without discrimination Evaluation after elaboration Can be unfocused

95 Creativity Six Thinking Hats White Hat – neutral and objective Red Hat – intuition, gut reaction Black Hat – gloomy, naysayer Yellow Hat – Pollyannaish, optimistic Green Hat – growth and creativity Blue Hat – process and control Symbolize perspective worn by people involved in the creative endeavor Edward de Bono

96 Inspiration Board games Spatial relationships Card games Resource management Paper RPGs Dynamic narratives Books Fantasy and agency Sports Team competition Film Continuity techniques Television Serialized stories Music Temporal systems Martial arts Discipline in action Children Invention

97 Communication Documentation Methods vary widely Written, descriptive model of the game Depth varies according to the needs of the game

98 Communication Treatment A brief, general description of the game and the fundamental concepts May include: Concept statement Goals and objectives Core mechanics and systems Competitive analysis Licensing and IP information Target platform and audience Scope Key features

99 Communication Other document types may include: Preliminary design document Initial Design Document Revised Design Document General Design Document Expanded Design Document Technical Design Document Final Design Document

100 Communication Flowcharts A typical technique for diagramming steps in a process Most developers are familiar

101 Communication

102 Communication Associative diagram Drawing that helps manage and organize information visually Mind Map A style of associative diagram Key words and figures are placed on branches

103 Psychology Working Memory Holds roughly 7 ± 2 items at one time while other cognitive operations on them

104 Psychology Attention Method of enhancing perceptions relative to other stimuli in the same environment How we focus on important things Limited capacity

105 Psychology Classical conditioning Reaction to stimulus is conditioned by pairing with another stimulus that elicits the desired response naturally

106 Psychology Unconditioned stimulus – Meat Unconditioned response – Salivation over meat Conditioned stimulus – Tone Conditioned response – Salivation over tone

107 Psychology Operant conditioning Learning by encouraging or discouraging Operant A response; the action in question Example: pressing a button Reinforcement contingency Consistent relationship between the operant and a result in the environment

108 Psychology Reinforcers Increase the probability an action will be repeated Positive reinforcement Positive stimulus that reinforces the behavior Ex. Use umbrella and be dry Negative reinforcement The removal or prevention of a negative stimulus Ex. Use umbrella and keep from getting wet Punishment Reduces the likelihood of a behavior with a stimulus Ex. Being burned by a hot stove