Individuals & Groups in Organizations Motivation at Work; Stress Management Frances Jørgensen frances@plan.aau.dk

Agenda What is motivation? Why study motivation? Types of motivation theories

Defining Motivation The willingness to do something, conditioned by this action’s ability to satisfy some need for the individual; the forces within a person that affect his/her direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior. A need is a physiological or psychological deficiency that makes certain outcomes appear attractive; deficiencies that energize or trigger behaviors to satisfy our needs. (Robbins, 2003; McShane & Von Glinow, 2002)

Content and Process Theories of Motivation Content theories explain why people have different needs at different times Process theories describe the processes through which needs are translated into behavior

Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory Herzberg’s Motivation- Content Theories of Motivation Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory Alderfer’s ERG Theory Herzberg’s Motivation- Hygiene Theory McClelland’s Learned Needs Self- Actualization Growth Motivators Need for Achievement Esteem Need for Power Belongingness Relatedness Hygiene Need for Affiliation Safety Existence Physiological

What motivates you?

Theory X and Theory Y Theory X: employees dislike work and will try to avoid it, are lazy, dislike responsibility and will seek formal direction, and must be coerced through punishment to perform; security most important factor associated with work. Theory Y: employees like work, are creative, seek responsibility, and can exercise self-direction when committed to the goals (McGregor, 1960). How can these theories be related to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?

DK study on motivational factors of work for highly educated young adults

The use content theories at work Match rewards with employee needs Offer employees a choice of rewards people have different needs at different times Limit use of financial rewards as a source of motivation

Process Theories of Motivation

Expectancy Theory in Practice Increasing the E-to-P expectancy training, selection, resources, clarify roles, provide coaching and feedback Increasing the P-to-O expectancy Measure performance accurately, explain how rewards are based on past performance Increasing outcome valences Use valued rewards, individualize rewards, minimize countervalent outcomes

Equity Theory Outcome/input ratio Comparison other Equity evaluation inputs -- what employee contributes (e.g. skill) outcomes -- what employees receive (e.g. pay) Comparison other person/people we compare ratio with not easily identifiable Equity evaluation compare outcome/input ratio with the comparison other

Consequences of Inequity Change inputs Change outcomes Change perceptions Leave the field Act on the comparison other Change the comparison other

Effective Goal Setting Specific Relevant Challenging Task Effort Task Performance Commitment Participation Challenging

Effect of Goal Difficulty on Performance High Area of Optimal Goal Difficulty Task Performance Low Moderate Challenging Impossible Goal Difficulty

Types of Rewards in the Workplace Membership and seniority Job status Competencies Performance © Corel Corp.

Membership/Seniority Based Rewards Fixed wages, seniority increases Advantages guaranteed wages may attract job applicants seniority-based rewards reduce turnover Disadvantages doesn’t motivate job performance discourages poor performers from leaving may act as golden handcuffs

Job Status-Based Rewards Includes job evaluation and status perks Advantages: job evaluation tries to maintain pay equity motivates competition for promotions Disadvantages: employees exaggerate duties, hoard resources creates psychological distance across hierarchy Inconsistent with flatter organizations

Competency-Based Rewards Pay increases with competencies acquired or demonstrated Skill-based pay Pay increases with skill modules learned Advantages More flexible work force, better quality, consistent with employability Disadvantages Potentially subjective, higher training costs

Performance-Based Rewards Stock ownership Stock options Profit sharing Organizational rewards Team rewards Gainsharing Bonuses Piece rate Commissions Royalties Merit pay Individual rewards

Team and Organizational Rewards Gainsharing plans based on cost reductions and increased labor efficiency ESOPs employees own company stock Stock options right to purchase company shares at a future date at a predetermined price Profit sharing employees receive share of profits

Problems with Performance Rewards Shift attention away from motivation job itself to extrinsic rewards Create a psychological distance with reward giver Discourage risk taking Used as quick fixes

Improving Reward Effectiveness Link rewards to performance Ensure rewards are relevant Team rewards for interdependent jobs Ensure rewards are valued Beware of unintended consequences © Corel Corp.

Job Design Assigning tasks to a job, including the interdependency of those tasks with other jobs Technology influences, but does not determine, job design Employability affects job design

Job Characteristics Model Core Job Characteristics Critical Psychological States Outcomes Skill variety Task identity Task significance Meaningfulness Work motivation Growth satisfaction General effectiveness Autonomy Responsibility Feedback from job Knowledge of results Individual differences Hackman & Oldman, 1980

Job Rotation vs. Job Enlargement Operate Camera Job 2 Operate Sound Job 3 Report Story Job Enlargement Job 1 Operate Camera Operate Sound Report Story Job 2 Operate Camera Operate Sound Report Story Job 3 Operate Camera Operate Sound Report Story

Job Enrichment Strategies Empowering employees giving employees more autonomy feeling of control and self-efficacy Forming natural work units completing an entire task assigning employees to specific clients Establishing client relationships employees put in direct contact with clients

Elements of Self-Leadership Personal Goal Setting Constructive Thought Patterns Designing Natural Rewards Self- Monitoring Self- Reinforce- ment Self-Leadership: We are self-directed and self-motivated to perform a task.

Stress Management Stress is an adaptive response to a situation that is perceived as challenging or threatening to the person’s well-being. Sources include: threat of job loss; job mismatch; conflicting expectations; role ambiguity; role overload; fear/responsibility; working conditions; working relationships, alienation. Signs of stress in the workplace include absenteeism, job turnover, lower productivity, and increased mistakes. Stress-related disorders include tension and migraine headaches, coronary heart disease, high blood pressure, sleep disorders, problems with concentration, appetite, etc.

General Adaptation Syndrome Stage 1 Alarm Reaction Stage 2 Resistance Stage 3 Exhaustion Normal Level of Resistance Selye, 1974

Stressors and Stress Outcomes Work Stressors Physical environment Role-related Interpersonal Organizational Individual Differences Consequences of Stress Physiological Behavioral Psychological Stress Nonwork Stressors

Role-Related Stressors Interpersonal Stressors Role conflict Interrole conflict Intrarole conflict Person-role conflict Role ambiguity Uncertain duties, authority Workload Too much/too little work Task control Machine pacing Monitoring equipment No work schedule control Working Conditions (Sexual) Harassment Workplace Violence Corporate Culture Non-work Stressors Time-based conflict Family Financial problems Living Conditions Illness/Substance abuse

Stress and Occupations Accountant Artist Auto Mechanic Forester Hospital manager Physician (GP) Psychologist School principal Police officer Tel. operator U.S. President Waiter/waitress Low-Stress Occupations Medium-Stress Occupations High-Stress Occupations

Individual differences and stress Individuals perceive situations differently Self-efficacy Locus of control Different threshold levels of resistance to stressor Store of energy Use different stress coping strategies

Consequences of Distress Physiological consequences cardiovascular diseases ulcers, sexual dysfunction, headaches Behavioral consequences work performance, accidents, decisions absenteeism -- due to sickness and flight workplace aggression Psychological Consequences moodiness, depression, emotional fatigue

Role-Related Stressors Job Burnout Process Interpersonal and Role-Related Stressors Emotional Exhaustion Physiological, psychological, and behavioral consequences Depersonalization Reduced Personal Accomplishment

Managing Employee Stress Existing organizational systems, procedures and policies that can be used to address emp. stress: supportive organizational culture; training and development; job analysis; organizational development; career planning and development; performance appraisal; compensation and benefits. Efforts aimed directly at stress prevention/ management: Physical fitness & wellness programs EAP’s