Material Objects as Symbols Material objects are often symbols in the practice of Buddhism Some are connected with Buddhist ethics, others are with new social mores emerged with the adaptation of Buddhism in China In Wuxi, China

Major materials objects imbued with symbolism: Robes alms bowls rosary ruyi-sceptor Bodhidharma, by Liaoan Qingyu, Yuan Dynasty. His robe symbolizes the transmission of Chan teachings

Robes and Bowls as Symbols Transmission from the Fifth Patriarch to the Six Patriarch featured: Transmission from the Fifth Patriarch to the Six Patriarch featured: Dharma robe Dharma robe Alms bowl Alms bowl Gatha (verse) Gatha (verse)

Robes and alms bowls are full of symbolism: Robes and alms bowls are full of symbolism: Ascetic symbol-- renunciation of wealth and comfort, living the life of mendicancy and austerity Ascetic symbol-- renunciation of wealth and comfort, living the life of mendicancy and austerity Doctrinal symbol-- Doctrinal symbol-- Transmission of the dharma

Monk ’ s Robes in China Called Jiasha (S. Kasaya):  Monks wore robes in different colors in different regions, normally, black, pitch-black, grey-black  The three robes: inner robe, upper garment, and outer robe Comprised of strips and patches: patched-robe  Materials for robes In India, robes were made of silk Chinese monks used linen and cotton to make robes

Purple robes conferred on monks Tang emperor began to recognize the monk of distinction by conferring a purple robe on him A worthy monk often received purple robes along with an honorary title Some monks scrambled for lavish purple robes, showing their desire for prominence and prestige

Other material objects Other material objects imbued with symbolism: one of the three jewels  Rug: supposedly a symbol of the holy dharma, but no longer common

Ring-staff: symbol of the monk Ring-staff: symbol of the monk Used in travel; expressions such as “ picking up his ring-staff ” signify that a monk set off on a journey or settled in a far-off place Used in travel; expressions such as “ picking up his ring-staff ” signify that a monk set off on a journey or settled in a far-off place Rosary: Rosary: used primarily as devotional object nowadays, at least in some circles (e.g., Pure Land society) used primarily as devotional object nowadays, at least in some circles (e.g., Pure Land society)

Ring-staff, Tang Dynasty

Indian Origin of Rosary Used by the Buddhist laity to gain merit by chanting the name of the “three jewels” Used to keep track of recitations of  Spells  The names of bodhisattvas  The names of buddhas Possess magical properties of its own Number of beads (108) represents number of afflictions. Consecration or empowering of the beads increases its efficacy.

Ring-staff made of gold (Tang Dynasty), appeared in the 2007 Beijing Spirng Auction

The Alms Bowls Carries symbolic association with the life of the peripatetic Buddhist ascetic Substances:  Earthenware  Wood  Ceramics  silver  Copper  Gold

Rosary substances of beads:substances of beads: –iron, pearl, crystal, seeds of bodhi tree, wood, jade ….

Rosary in China Pure Land monks championed the use of rosary Pure Land monks championed the use of rosary Daozhuo ( ) encouraged his followers to chant aloud the name of Amitabha Daozhuo ( ) encouraged his followers to chant aloud the name of Amitabha Used objects such as sesame seeds to keep track of the number of recitations Used objects such as sesame seeds to keep track of the number of recitations Rosary was widely used in Tang times and later Rosary was widely used in Tang times and later Laypeople used rosary to show their devotion to Amitabha Buddha Laypeople used rosary to show their devotion to Amitabha Buddha

Material Objects and Merit Merit accrues when one becomes generous donor or engages in gift-giving Merit can be transferred Merit derives from the creation or making of some material objects associated with Buddhism:  Producing books  Building monasteries  Constructing bridges

Books and Merit Producing or reproducing books associated with Buddhism helps one gain merit  Copying or printing scriptures, dharani, treatises, tracts, morality books… Belief in the idea that merit comes from producing/reproducing books is among many influences that scriptures have exerted This belief is evidenced by the frequent and sometimes massive production/reproduction of some Buddhist scriptures:  The Diamond Sutra  The Heart Sutra

Reproduction of Sutra through Copying The copying of sutra was already a common practice in the 4 th and 5 th centuries  Monks engaged in the copying of sutra  Common people  Emperor and members of imperial household Copying became even more popular during the Tang:  Government-sponsored copying  Monastery-sponsored copying  a good calligrapher would be hired as “copyist of sutra”, which became a specialization in Tang times

Monastery-construction and Merit While Buddhist clergy often questioned the validity of building large monasteries to gain merit, most monks took this business for granted. Lay persons involved in the construction of the monasteries because of this belief:  This is a form of constructing “field of merit” (futian 福田 )

Massive construction of Buddhist monasteries occurred in the 5th century and later when Buddhism was under the protection of imperial patronage  Transformed the landscape of China  Enhanced the relationship between clerics and lay persons Field of Merit

Monasteries in China Early monasteries came from the conversion of private houses donated to the clergy by wealthy lay persons Early monasteries came from the conversion of private houses donated to the clergy by wealthy lay persons Construction of new monasteries became common among lay persons Construction of new monasteries became common among lay persons Monasteries built to provide merit for the deceased parents Monasteries built to provide merit for the deceased parents Imperial households participated in the construction of monasteries: Imperial households participated in the construction of monasteries: Emperors of the Tang dynasty Emperors of the Tang dynasty Repairing or restoring monasteries yielded merit too Repairing or restoring monasteries yielded merit too

Large monasteries have a gate called “ Mountain Gate ”

A main hall called “ Buddha Hall ”

Questioning Merit Critics questioned the building of monasteries on these grounds:  Lavish buildings of new monasteries were at odds with Buddhist doctrines of austerity and emptiness  Money involved in the construction has little to do with the essence of enlightenment and the truth of emptiness  Monks and nuns were aloof from the lofty doctrine of Buddhism when they and patrons exchanged service and cash donations

Bridge, bridge-building, and Merit Monks played a prominent role in building and maintaining bridges  Motivated by the pervasive Buddhist notion of religious merit in connection with bridge- building  Bridge-building is a “blessed work”, that would bring “blessings,” or merit, to those involved

Monastic institution supported bridge- building because it is extolled in Buddhist scriptures as a compassionate act and it improved the social standing of the monastery in the local community Bridge-building was considered an act of kindness (bridge a metaphor for the compassion of bodhisattva, that deliver all beings to the other shore)

Monks were technical specialists in bridge-building and specialists in the art of soliciting funds  some of them built hundreds of bridges

Lay Buddhists and Bridge-building Lay persons participated in bridge- building  Common people, through donations to bridge construction, believe that bridge- building would improve one’s lot…  local officials, by working with monks and donors, built bridge to fulfill part of their official duties—an expression of their being “parenting officials” (fumu guan 父母官 )

Stone Stele Stone stele associated with Buddhism emerged from the 5th century and increased thereafter  Erecting stone stele is a meritorious act  Inscriptions indicate the reasons why donors want to have the stele made Monastic bells and drums  Also showed inscriptions indicating donors’ quests for good rewards through their donations of bells and drums to monasteries

Temple Bell

Inscriptions on Stelae, Images, etc. Why names of donors inscribed? –For donors: A means of securing prestige, asserting or improving their social status show they fulfilled their duty in a proper way –For monasteries: a means to show wide support, particularly that of high officials or of even emperors