Theories of Science 2. From Science to Technoscience: A Historical Overview

A Brief History of Science Ancient, or Traditional science, up to about 1600 Ancient, or Traditional science, up to about 1600 philosophical, spritual knowledge philosophical, spritual knowledge distinctive regional modes distinctive regional modes gap between theory and practice gap between theory and practice Modern, or Western science, from about 1600 to 1970 Modern, or Western science, from about 1600 to 1970 instrumental, rational knowledge instrumental, rational knowledge one universal system of disciplines one universal system of disciplines functional differentiation of theory and practice functional differentiation of theory and practice Global, or Technoscience, from about 1970 Global, or Technoscience, from about 1970 situated, pluralist notion of knowledge: sciences situated, pluralist notion of knowledge: sciences organized in transdisciplinary networks organized in transdisciplinary networks integration of theory and practice integration of theory and practice

What was science in antiquity? A part of society (macro level) A part of society (macro level) primarily used for purposes of conquest primarily used for purposes of conquest expert advice to imperial authorities expert advice to imperial authorities a culture of ”wise men” a culture of ”wise men” Institutional systems (meso level) Institutional systems (meso level) largely informal education and research systems largely informal education and research systems linked to infrastructural maintenance/management linked to infrastructural maintenance/management Forms of knowledge (micro level) Forms of knowledge (micro level) (theo)logical theories (theo)logical theories embodied, artisanal practical knowledge embodied, artisanal practical knowledge personalized ethical-religious wisdom personalized ethical-religious wisdom

What was science in the 17th century? A part of society oriented toward mining, navigation, warfare part of the formation of the nation state an emerging ideology for a new ”class” Institutional systems academies of science, state laboratories trade and commerce (e.g. East India companies) Forms of knowledge analytical and mathematical theories experimental and observational practices utilitarian ethics (”the protestant ethic”)

What is (techno)science today? A part of society A part of society direct productive – and destructive - force direct productive – and destructive - force basic administrative tools basic administrative tools dominant ideology, or cultural belief dominant ideology, or cultural belief Institutional systems Institutional systems integration of research and education integration of research and education symbiosis of technology and science symbiosis of technology and science Forms of knowledge Forms of knowledge complex and diverse theories complex and diverse theories hybrid, collaborative forms of practice hybrid, collaborative forms of practice ethical relativism and pluralism ethical relativism and pluralism

The Making of Modern Science From movements…to institutions reform of society reform of philosophy visionary, utopianrealistic, pragmatic decentralized organization(central) academy technical improvementsscientific development informal communicationformal publication

Science and Industrialization International dissemination International dissemination Professional societies Professional societies Disciplinary identities Disciplinary identities New scientific universities New scientific universities Research laboratories in education and industry Research laboratories in education and industry ”science as a vocation” (Max Weber) ”science as a vocation” (Max Weber)

Long Waves of Industrialization Mechanization steam engine steam engine Capitalism Imperialism Scientification geology political economy history biochemistry sociology geography genetics atomic physics anthropology technosciences environmentalism railroads electricity atomic energy Changes in Science

The Making of Technoscience Mass production (Fordism) Mass production (Fordism) Scientific management (Taylorism) Scientific management (Taylorism) Research as business (Edison, Dupont) Research as business (Edison, Dupont) Technocratic, or rationalization movements Technocratic, or rationalization movements State economic planning (Keynesianism) State economic planning (Keynesianism) The ”new industrial state” (Galbraith) The ”new industrial state” (Galbraith)

From Little Science to Big Science change in size and scale change in size and scale mission orientation mission orientation external sponsorship external sponsorship new norm, or value system new norm, or value system new role for the state (”science policy”) new role for the state (”science policy”)

Critiques of Modern Science neo-romantic neo-romantic moral, or cultural critique moral, or cultural critique against scientistic hubris, for hybridity against scientistic hubris, for hybridity environmental environmental scientific, ”internal” critique scientific, ”internal” critique against reductionism, for complexity against reductionism, for complexity feminist feminist social, institutional critique social, institutional critique against masculinity, for empathy against masculinity, for empathy

The Storylines of Technoscience Economic (stories of natural-technical sciences) Economic (stories of natural-technical sciences) Focus on products, facts and artefacts Focus on products, facts and artefacts Science as innovation, profitable ideas Science as innovation, profitable ideas Social (stories of social sciences) Social (stories of social sciences) Focus on actors, agents Focus on actors, agents Science as construction, entrepreneurship Science as construction, entrepreneurship Culture (stories of cultural sciences) Culture (stories of cultural sciences) Focus on arenas, users Focus on arenas, users Science as appropriation, meaning Science as appropriation, meaning