Chapter 5 Motivation

Learning Objectives Describe the three determinants of job performance Identify the need levels in Maslow's hierarchy Explain Alderfer's ERG Theory Compare motivators with hygiene factors Discuss the factors that reflect a high need for achievement

Learning Objectives Define the key terms in expectancy theory Distinguish between inputs and outputs in equity theory Understand the different types of organizational justice Identify the key steps in goal setting Describe the concept of the psychological contract

Introduction More than motivation plays a role in performance Ability Instinct Aspiration level Personal factors (age, education, background)

Determinants of Job Performance

Determinants of Job Performance Motivation components Persistence Direction Intensity

The Starting Point: The Individual Most managers must motivate a diverse and unpredictable group of people They have varying needs and goals Needs Deficiencies an individual experiences at a particular time May be physiological, psychological, or sociological Those with deficiencies are more susceptible to motivational efforts

The Starting Point: The Individual Needs trigger tension and a search for ways to reduce it A course of action is selected Goal-directed behavior occurs The behavior triggers either a reward or punishment The deficiencies are reassessed

The Starting Point: The Individual Three main areas affect employee motivation Organizational issues Job issues Leader issues

The Motivational Process: A General Model The Employee I. Need deficiencies II. Search for ways to satisfy needs III. Goal-directed behavior IV. Performance (evaluation of goals accomplished) V. Rewards or punishments VI. Need deficiencies reassessed by the employee

Content theories focus on Motivation Theories Content theories focus on Factors within the person The needs that motivate people Process theories describe, explain, and analyze how behavior is… Energized Directed Sustained Stopped

Content Motivation Theories Maslow’s need hierarchy Alderfer’s ERG theory Herzberg’s two-factor theory McClelland’s learned needs theory

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy The Need-Hierarchy Approach A satisfied need ceases to motivate Unsatisfied needs can cause frustration, conflict, and stress People have a need to grow and develop; they strive to move up the hierarchy

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Need-hierarchy issues Little data proves that a needs hierarchy exists Only two needs levels exist: physiological and then all others Security needs decrease as managers advance With a corresponding increase in need for social interaction, achievement, and self-actualization

Alderfer’s ERG needs correspond to Maslow’s hierarchy Alderfer’s ERG Theory Alderfer’s ERG needs correspond to Maslow’s hierarchy Existence = physiological and safety Relatedness = belongingness, social, love Growth = esteem and self-actualization A frustration-regression process exists If one continually fails to satisfy growth needs, relatedness needs reemerge Efforts will be redirected toward satisfying a lower-order need

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory A content theory with two motivation factors Dissatisfiers-satisfiers (hygiene factors) Salary, job security, working conditions, status, company procedures, interpersonal relations Satisfiers-motivators (intrinsic conditions) The job content, achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, possibility of growth

Traditional View Versus Herzberg

Criticisms of Herzberg’s Theory Over-simplifies the nature of job satisfaction Requires people to look at themselves retrospectively Only self-reports of performance over long period of time were used in original study Little testing of motivational and performance consequences of the theory

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Job enrichment Builds personal achievement, recognition, challenge, responsibility, and growth opportunities into a job Increases individual motivation by providing more discretion and accountability

McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory McClelland believes needs are acquired from culture Need for achievement (n Ach) Need for affiliation (n Aff) Need for power (n Pow) When a need is strong, there is motivation to use behavior that leads to its satisfaction

McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory Factors reflecting a high n Ach Likes to take responsibility for solving problems Sets moderate achievement goals and takes calculated risks Desires feedback on performance

McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory Factors reflecting a high n Pow Concentrates on obtaining and exercising power and authority Concerned with influencing others and winning arguments Power can be negative or positive

McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory Factors reflecting a high n Aff Desires social interaction Concerned about the quality of personal relationships Social relationships take precedence over task accomplishment

Criticisms of Learned Needs Theory Supporting evidence was supplied by McClelland and his associates Use of projective psychological personality tests is unscientific No proof that acquired needs are sustained over time Claim that n Ach can be learned counters theory that motive acquisition occurs in childhood and is hard to alter

Comparison of Content Theories Maslow (need hierarchy) Self-actualization Esteem Belongingness, social, and love Safety and security Physiological Herzberg (two-factor theory) The work itself Responsibility Advancement Growth Achievement Recognition Quality of inter- personal relations among peers, with supervisors, with subordinates Job security Working conditions Salary Alderfer Relatedness Existence McClelland Need for achievement power affiliation Motivators Hygiene conditions Higher order needs Basic

Process Theories of Motivation Content theories focus primarily on the needs and incentives that cause behavior They try to explain how behavior is energized, directed, maintained, and stopped

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory Employees are more likely to be motivated when they perceive that effort = successful performance + desired rewards and outcomes Motivation is a process governing choices among alternative forms of voluntary activity Most behaviors are under the voluntary control of the individual and consequently are motivated

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory First-level Outcomes Second-level Outcomes Result from behavior associated with doing the job itself Productivity Absenteeism Turnover Production quality Result from the rewards and punishments that first-level outcomes produce Pay increases Group acceptance or rejection Promotion Termination

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory Instrumentality The perception that first-level outcomes (performance) are tied to second-level outcomes (rewards or punishment) Valence An individual’s preferences for outcomes Expectancy Belief that a particular behavior will be followed by a particular outcome

Expectancy Theory Effort Performance First-level outcome Second-level outcome E P EXPECTANCY Perceived probability of successful performance, given effort E O EXPECTANCY Perceived probability of receiving an outcome, given performance

Equity Theory One’s perception of being treated fairly in social exchanges can influence motivation Equity exists when one perceives that the ratio of their inputs (efforts) to their outcomes (rewards) equals the ratios of other employees

Important Equity Theory Terms Person The individual for whom equity or inequity is perceived Comparison Other Any group or persons used as a referent by Person, regarding the ratio of inputs and outcomes Inputs The individual characteristics brought by Person to the job Outcomes What Person received from the job

Equity Theory

Change Procedures to Restore Equity Ways to restore equity… Change the inputs or outcomes Change attitudes Change the reference person Leave the field Change the inputs or outcomes of the reference person

Organizational Justice The degree to which individuals feel fairly treated at the workplace

Types of Organizational Justice The degree to which individuals feel they are fairly treated at the workplace Distributive The perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed throughout an organization Procedural The perceived equity of the processes and procedures used to make resource allocation decisions

Organizational Justice Positive Reactions to Procedural Justice Organizational commitment Intent to stay with the organization Organizational citizenship Trust in supervisor Satisfaction with decision outcome Work effort Performance

People are more inclined to interpret decisions as fair when… Procedural Justice People are more inclined to interpret decisions as fair when… They have a voice in the decision Decision making is consistent The process and procedures conform to ethical and moral values

Procedural Justice Why does it work? Self-interest Theory Group Theory People want fair procedures because it enables them to obtain desired extrinsic outcomes Group Theory Fair group procedures are a sign of respect and an indication that group members are valued

Interpersonal justice Procedural Justice Interpersonal justice Judgments made by employees as to whether they feel they are treated fairly Perceptions of justice are higher when employees are treated with dignity and respect Abusive supervisors are common Employees who experience bullying and incivility are more likely to quit

Informational justice Procedural Justice Informational justice Perceived fairness of the communication provided to employees from authorities Keep many channels open and communicate frequently Utilize informal chats Don’t sugarcoat bad news

Goal Setting A goal is a result that a person or group is trying to accomplish through behavior and actions Locke’s view… An individual’s conscious goals and intentions are the primary determinants of behavior Once a person starts something, he/she pushes on until a goal is achieved Harder goals result in higher levels of performance if the goals are accepted by the individual

Goal Setting Terms Goal specificity Goal difficulty Goal intensity Degree of quantitative precision (clarity) of the goal Goal specificity Level of performance required to achieve the goal Goal difficulty Process of setting the goal or determining how to achieve it Goal intensity The amount of effort used to achieve a goal Goal commitment

Goal Setting Applied to Organizations Goal Characteristics Performance Rewards Moderators Clarity Meaningful Challenging Ability Commitment Feedback Desired by Organization Preferred by Individual or Team

Implementing Goal Setting Programs When implementing goal-setting programs, consider individual differences Personality Career progression Training background Personal health Monitor goal-setting programs for attitudinal and performance consequences

Motivation and the Psychological Contract Exchange theory Organizational members engage in reasonably predictable give-and-take relationships Per Schein, the degree to which employees exert effort, commit to goals, and derive satisfaction from work depends on The extent to which employee expectations match the organization’s expectations The specific nature of what is exchanged

The Psychological Contract Mutual expectations constitute part of the psychological contract An unwritten agreement between the individual and the organization Specifies what each expects to give and receive from the other Can change over time These implicit agreements may take precedence over written agreements

The Psychological Agreement These contracts may focus on… Satisfaction Challenging work Fair treatment Loyalty An opportunity to be creative Managing the psychological contract is a key aspect of most managers’ jobs

Reviewing Motivation Content Theories Expectancy Theory Equity Theory Individual- oriented Expectancy Theory Emphasizes individual, jobs, and environmental variables Recognizes differences in needs, perceptions, and beliefs Equity Theory Addresses the relationship between attitudes toward inputs and outputs and reward practices Goal-Setting Theory Emphasizes the cognitive processes and the role of intentional behavior in motivation

Managers can influence the motivation state of employees Reviewing Motivation Managers can influence the motivation state of employees Be sensitive to variations in employees’ needs, abilities, goals, reward preferences Provide jobs that offer task challenge, diversity, and need satisfaction Responsibility is shared between managers and the HR dept