The Question of Selfless Conduct Human Nature: we are either inherently good (Mencius) or inherently evil (Hsun-tzu); environmental influences divert us from our true natures u Psychological egoism: all actions are aimed at promoting one’s own self-interest –even in pity and charity, we think of ourselves in another’s situation Mencius Hsun- tzu Hobbes

Altruism and Self-Interest u Concern for others (benevolence) is not incompatible with self-love, because we can be happy in achieving our aims (which might include helping others) Joseph Butler u To avoid concluding that egoism is not falsifiable, sociobiology argues that altruism can be seen in how it promotes group survival Edward O. Wilson

Reason and Moral Judgments u A factual inclination toward self-interest does not imply that we ought to promote it –Judgments of moral approval/disapproval are based on feeling or sentiment, not reason –Searle’s Reply: obligations are institutional Hume u Emotivism/Prescriptivism: moral claims are not true/false; they merely express feelings or recommendations A. J. Ayer u Kurt Baier: morality is not based on emotions but on determining the best reasons for acting