© Allyn & Bacon Prenatal Development And Birth Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Growth and Motor Development Between 6 and 12 Grow 2 – 3 inches and add 6 pounds a year Increased large-muscle coordination Better hand-eye coordination Significant gains in fine motor control Girls – 94% of adult height attained Boys –84% of adult height attained More muscle mass in boys More body fat in girls Physical Changes
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Two major growth spurts –From 6 to 8 years Increases in the sensory and motor cortex Linked to improvements in hand-eye coordination –From 10 to 12 years Frontal lobes and cerebral cortex add synapses Associated with gains in logic and planning The Brain and Nervous System
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Myelinization continues –Frontal lobes and reticular formation links improve. 12 year olds develop selective attention. –Associational area neurons Sensory, motor, and intellectual functions are linked. Contributes to increases in information-processing speed The Brain and Nervous System
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Spatial perception lateralization –Helps with skills such as map reading –Improves learning math concepts and problem- solving Spatial cognition –Ability to infer rules from and make predictions about the movements of objects in space The Brain and Nervous System
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Head Injuries –Motor vehicles and bicycles –Majority of children recover fully Asthma –Most frequent cause of school absence Health and Wellness
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Obesity –Between 11% and 25% of children are obese. Body weight that is 20% or more above the normal weight Associated with adult obesity Require special diets for children to lose weight Fear of developing unattractive body becomes a problem Health and Wellness
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Language –Become skilled at managing the finer points of grammar –Increase in vocabulary, especially derived words Cognitive Changes
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Anglin’s Estimates of Vocabulary Size Figure 9.1
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Can solve conservation tasks easily Construction of schemes that enable children to think logically –Decentration –Reversibility Inductive logic –Moving from personal experience to a general principle Good at manipulating things that can be seen and touched Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Horizontal Decalage –Applying new thinking to all kinds of problems –Age 7 – 8 Children understand class inclusion – the understanding that subordinate classes are included in larger, superordinate classes. Direct Tests of Piaget’s View
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Figure 9.2
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Concrete Operations as Rules for Problem Solving –Siegler Cognitive development consists of acquiring a set of basic rules that are then applied to broader ranges of problems. Moving from one rule to the next requires experience. Direct Tests of Piaget’s View
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Figure 9.3
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Siegler Experiments Figure 9.4
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Processing efficiency –The ability to make efficient use of short-term memory capacity Major component of cognitive growth Increases the speed of cognitive processing Cross-cultural research validates change Advances in Information Processing Skills
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Figure 9.5
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Automaticity –The ability to recall information from long term memory without using short term memory capacity –Frees up short-term memory space for more complex processing Advances in Information Processing Skills
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Executive and Strategic Processes –Information processing skills that allow a person to devise and carry out alternative strategies for remembering and solving a problem Metacognition Memory strategies Advances in Information Processing Skills
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Expertise –The amount of information possessed improves information processing –Michelene Chi – expert chess players Advances in Information Processing Skills
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Literacy –The ability to read and write Phonological awareness increases Readers benefit from specific instruction Automaticity of identifying sound–symbol combinations helps Poor readers Have problems with sound-letter combinations Benefit from highly specific phonics approaches May need multiple teaching approaches to help catch up Schooling
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Standardized tests –Achievement tests Designed to assess specific information learned in school Critics suggest portfolios of children’s school work is a better indicator of actual school learning. –Intelligence tests Required by most U.S. school districts Often result in misclassification of minority students Strongly correlated with achievement test scores Achievement and Intelligence Tests
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Multiple Intelligences – Howard Gardner –Little empirical support Triarchic Theory – Robert Sternberg –Contextual intelligence –Experiential intelligence –Componential intelligence Emotional Intelligence – Daniel Goleman –Children’s control over emotions in early childhood is strongly related to academic achievement. Achievement and Intelligence Tests
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Which theory describes intelligence better – multiple intelligences or the triarchic theory? Why? Obesity is becoming a major problem in the U.S. What can a parent do to help an obese child or to help a child avoid becoming obese? Questions to Ponder
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Similar to Authoritative parenting styles –Clear goals and rules –Good control –Good communication –High nurturance –Authoritative teachers who have high expectations Overall climate or ethos of success –Clear and strong leadership from principal –Positive parental involvement Effective Schools
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Second-Language Learners –Limited English Proficient (LEP) Non-English-speaking children Participate in bilingual education –Instruction given in two languages English-as-a-second-language programs (ESL) –Children spend part of the day in classes to learn English. –No particular program works best Using a home-component helps –Helps to support children’s home language and culture Providing a transition to English-only classrooms helps LEP students. Group Differences in Achievement
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 No consistent differences between boys and girls on total scores –Girls do slightly better on verbal tasks. –Boys do slightly better on numerical reasoning. Differences shaped by environmental factors –Parent and teacher assumptions about skills –Children internalize beliefs of others. –By high school, differences in standardized math tests are apparent. Sex Differences in Achievement
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Problems associated with economic status; access to prenatal care; family stability Style differences –Analytic style Define learning goals and follow orderly steps to reach them –Relational style Focus attention on the “big picture” instead of individual bits of information –Higher percentage of Asian American and European American children are analytic –African American, Hispanic, and Native American are relational Lack of a good cultural fit may cause school problems. Feelings of hopelessness lead to school failure. Racial Influences on Achievement
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 U.S. children significantly behind their peers in industrialized nations in math and science. –Underlying cognitive processes are similar. North American parents emphasize innate ability; Asians emphasize hard work. Teaching methods vary. –Asians emphasize “master lessons” around a single theme. –Asians spend more time in direct instruction. –Asians emphasize computational fluency. –Americans may undermine intrinsic motivation by overusing reward systems. Cross-Cultural Differences in Achievement
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Learning Disabilities –Dyslexia Usually specific to reading –LD children rarely show brain damage –May have trouble understanding the sound and structure of language –May have a genetic basis –Assigned to special classes Reciprocal teaching – working in pairs or groups –Improving motivation is essential Children with Special Needs
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder –More physically active and less attentive leading to academic and behavioral problems Causes –Neurological differences –Cultural factors –Complex interaction between temperament, parenting style, peer relations and school Children with Special Needs
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Treatments –Parents lose confidence in their abilities Become permissive or overly threatening –May be helped by parental training programs. »Helps regain a sense of control »Reinforce specific rules –Stimulant medications Ritalin Use may have a self-fulfilling prophesy effect May not improve grades Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
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